Conversion of supercritical water energy into electrical power

ABSTRACT

In a general aspect, a system can include a reactor for combusting fuel and producing high-temperature, high-pressure liquid as a byproduct, and at least one vessel defining a cavity to be partially filled with water, with an air pocket within the cavity above the water. The system can further include respective valves to control admission of liquid from the reactor into the air pocket when the air pocket has a pressure lower than an operating pressure of the reactor, and to control emission of the water from the at least one vessel through of the vessel after the water in the at least one vessel has been pressurized by the liquid from the reactor. The system can also include a hydroelectric drive system for receiving water emitted from the cavity, and for converting energy in the received water into electrical energy.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/985,612, filed Mar. 5, 2020, U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/985,733, filed Mar. 5, 2020, U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/985,636, filed Mar. 5, 2020, and U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/985,652, filed Mar. 5, 2020, these applications areincorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure relates to oxidation reactors and, in particular, toconversion of supercritical water energy into electrical power.

BACKGROUND

Supercritical water oxidation reactors (SCWOR) have been used to breakdown many different forms of contaminates in water, for example, ink,pharma waste, hazardous chemicals, and nerve agents. However, thepressures and temperatures used in SCWORs present challenging problems.For example, the energy cost for compressing and heating the fuel feedstock and the air to charge the reactor can be commercially prohibitive,and unfiltered gaseous feedstocks are corrosive to gas compressors,significantly reducing their effective lifespan. In addition, buildup ofreaction byproducts from a supercritical water reactor system oncomponents of the system can require costly maintenance of the system.

SUMMARY

In a general aspect, a system for producing electrical energy fromhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid can include a reactor configuredfor combusting fuel and producing high-temperature, high-pressure liquidas a byproduct of the combustion of the fuel. The system can furtherinclude at least one vessel having one or more walls that define ahollow interior cavity configured to be partially filled with water,with an air pocket within the cavity above the water in the cavity. Theat least one vessel can include a high-pressure water outlet port and ahigh-pressure water inlet port. The system can also include a pluralityof valves configured to control admission of high-temperature,high-pressure liquid from the reactor into the air pocket through thehigh-pressure water inlet port when the air pocket has a pressure lowerthan an operating pressure of the reactor, and to control emission ofthe water from the at least one vessel through the high-pressure wateroutlet port after the water in the at least one vessel has beenpressurized by the admission of the high-temperature, high-pressureliquid from the reactor into the air pocket. The system can also includea hydroelectric drive system configured for receiving water emitted fromthe cavity of the at least one vessel through the high-pressure wateroutlet port, and for converting energy in the received water intoelectrical energy.

Implementations can include one or more of the following features,alone, or in any combination with each other.

For example, the at least one vessel further can include a low-pressurewater inlet port configured for receiving water from the hydroelectricdrive system. The water received from the hydroelectric drive system caninclude water that was emitted from the cavity of the at least onevessel, received by the hydroelectric drive system, and used by thehydroelectric drive system to convert energy in the water intoelectrical energy.

The at least one vessel can include a gas outlet port configured foremitting steam from the at least one vessel in response receipt of waterfrom the hydroelectric drive system through the low-pressure water inletport. The system can include a vapor condenser configured for receivingthe emitted steam and for condensing the steam into water.

The hydroelectric drive system can include a Pelton wheel.

The high-temperature, high-pressure liquid received from the reactorinto the air pocket through the high-pressure water inlet port caninclude supercritical water.

The system can include a reverse osmosis filter. The at least one vesselincludes a low-pressure water outlet port configured for emitting waterfrom the vessel to the reverse osmosis filter.

The system can include a controller configured to control the admissionof the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid received from the reactorinto the air pocket, such that the received liquid vaporizes in the airpocket and increases the pressure of the air pocket and the water in theat least one vessel upon admission of the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid into the air pocket. The controller can beconfigured to control the admission of the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid received from the reactor into the air pocket, andemission of the water from the at least one vessel to the hydroelectricdrive system, such that when a water level reaches a minimum water levelin the at least one vessel after the emission of the water to thehydroelectric drive system a pressure in the vessel is below 40 psi.

The at least one vessel can include a plurality of vessels. Each of theplurality of vessels can have one or more walls that define a hollowinterior cavity configured to be partially filled with water, with anair pocket within the cavity above the water in the cavity. Each vesselcan include a high-pressure water outlet port and a high-pressure waterinlet port. The plurality of valves can include valves configured tocontrol admission of high-temperature, high-pressure liquid from thereactor into the air pocket of each vessel through the high-pressurewater inlet port of the vessel when the air pocket has a pressure lowerthan an operating pressure of the reactor, and to control emission ofthe water from the each vessel through the high-pressure water outletport of the vessel after the water in the vessel has been pressurized bythe admission of the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid from thereactor into the air pocket. The hydroelectric drive system can befurther configured for receiving water emitted from the cavity of eachvessel through the high-pressure water outlet port of the vessel and forconverting energy in the received water into electrical energy.

The plurality of valves can include valves configured to controladmission water received from the hydroelectric drive system into eachvessel to refill the vessel and valves configured to control a releaseof gas from the air pocket of each vessel to a vapor condenser whilewater is refilling the vessel. The valves configured to controladmission water received from the hydroelectric drive system into eachvessel to refill the vessel can include check valves. The valvesconfigured to control emission of the water from each vessel through thehigh-pressure water outlet port of the vessel can include check valves.Water received from the hydroelectric drive system into a first vesselof the plurality of vessels can include water received into thehydroelectric drive system from a second vessel of the plurality ofvessels. The second vessel can be different from the first vessel.

In another general aspect, a method for producing electrical energy fromhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid can include receivinghigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid from a reactor. Thehigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid can be a byproduct of combustionof fuel in the reactor. The high-temperature, high-pressure liquid canbe received into a vessel having one or more walls that define a hollowinterior cavity partially filled with water, with an air pocket withinthe cavity. When the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid is received,the water in the cavity can have a first level, and the air pocket canhave a first pressure that is less than an operating pressure of thereactor. The method can further include, after the receivedhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid has vaporized in the air pocketand increased the pressure of the air pocket to a second pressuregreater than the first pressure, releasing pressurized water from thecavity. The method can also include driving a hydroelectric system withthe released pressurized water, and refilling the vessel with waterrecovered from water used to drive the hydroelectric drive system.

Implementations can include one or more of the following features,alone, or in any combination with each other.

For example, the method 1300 can include separating solids and/ormineral crystals from the water that was used to drive the hydroelectricdrive system before refilling the vessel with the water recovered fromwater used to drive the hydroelectric drive system. The method caninclude releasing steam from the vessel in response to the refilling ofthe vessel with water recovered from water used to drive thehydroelectric drive system. The method can include condensing thereleased steam into water, and capturing the condensed water in acontainer.

The hydroelectric drive system can include a Pelton wheel. Thehigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid received from the reactor intothe air pocket can include supercritical water.

The method can include releasing water from the cavity of the vessel,and filtering the released water through a reverse osmosis filter toremove salt and an acid from water. The acid can include sulfuric acid.

The second pressure can be greater than 85% of an operating pressure ofthe reactor. Refilling the vessel can begin when the cavity has apressure that is less than 40 psi.

The vessel can be one of a plurality of vessels. Each of the pluralityof vessels can have one or more walls that define a hollow interiorcavity configured to be partially filled with water, with an air pocketwithin the cavity above the water in the cavity. Each vessel can includea high-pressure water outlet port and a high-pressure water inlet port.The method can include admitting water received from the hydroelectricdrive system into each vessel to refill the vessel. Water received fromthe hydroelectric drive system into a first vessel of the plurality ofvessels can include water received into the hydroelectric drive systemfrom a second vessel of the plurality of vessels. The second vessel canbe different from the first vessel. The method can include controlling arelease of gas from the air pocket of each vessel to a vapor condenserwhile water is refilling the vessel.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in theaccompa-nying drawings and the description below. Other features will beapparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a supercritical water oxidation reactorsystem in an embodiment.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a supercritical water oxidation reactorsystem in another embodiment.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a system that includes charger systemoperably coupled to a supercritical water oxidation reactor, in whichenergy from byproducts of reactions within the reactor are used in thecharger system to compress air, fuel, and/or water to pressuresexceeding the operating pressure of the reactor for input to the reactorat the high pressures.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a vessel that can be used in a chargersystem.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a plurality of charging systemsconnected in parallel for use in compressing gas for use in a reactor.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of another implementation of a chargersystem, in which the charger system is used to compress fuel gas, liquidfuel, and/or solid fuel to pressures exceeding the operating pressure ofthe reactor for input to the reactor at the high pressures.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a hydraulic drive system in whichenergy produced by a supercritical water reactor is used to drive thehydroelectric drive system to produce electrical power.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a hydraulic drive system in whichenergy produced by a supercritical water reactor is used to drive ahydroelectric drive system to produce electrical power.

FIG. 9 is a schematic sectional view of a reaction chamber for use in ahigh-pressure, high-temperature reactor, such as, for example, asupercritical water oxidation reactor.

FIG. 10 is a schematic side view of a port through which gas can beprovided from an exterior of the reaction chamber into an interior ofthe inner vessel of the reaction chamber.

FIG. 11 is a schematic top view of a hollow tube when the tube protrudesthrough an outer wall and inner wall of an outer vessel of a reactionchamber and through an inner vessel the reaction chamber so that an endof the hollow tube is located within the inner vessel.

FIG. 12 is a schematic sectional view of a reaction chamber for use in ahigh-pressure, high-temperature reactor, such as, for example, asupercritical water oxidation reactor.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating method of charging a reactor withcharge gas using energy from the reactor, such as using the apparatus ofFIGS. 1-6 .

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In a supercritical water oxidation reactors (SCWOR), water is heated andpressurized, so that the temperature of the water is far above theboiling point of water at atmospheric pressure (100° C.) but thepressure is high enough that the water does not boil, even at theelevated temperature. At high temperatures and pressures (e.g., fortemperatures above 374° C. and pressures above 3210 pounds per squareinch (psi))psi) water experiences a phase change to a supercriticalstate, in which the supercritical water acts as an aggressive catalystof chemical reactions. Even at temperatures and pressures above 100° C.and 15 psi, but below the critical point of water, reactions within theSCWOR are significantly enhanced compared to reactors operating atatmospheric pressure. Thus, contaminants in supercritical water, suchas, for example, hazardous chemicals, pharmaceutical waste,hydrocarbons, organic matter can be broken down efficiently when thewater enters a supercritical phase.

In some implementations, SCWORs can be used to reduce long chainhydrocarbons and all organic matter. In this process, the hydrogen atomsare released from the hydrocarbon chain and bond to oxygen forming newwater (H2O). The carbons freed from the chain become carbon dioxide.Both reactions, like most of the other oxidation reactions that occur inthe SCWOR, are exothermic, and the heat from the reactions increases thetemperature of the liquid in the reactor.

SCWORs offer the possibility of producing clean energy from sewage,biogas, and other organic materials, because, unlike combustion of fuelin a diesel or boiler furnace, there are no sulfur dioxide emissionsreleased into the air by the fuel used to power a SCWOR, and thereforethe SCWOR process is very clean.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a supercritical water oxidation reactorsystem 100 in an embodiment. The system 100 can be used, for example, tobreak down waste material from an oil well. The system 100 includes asource 1 of fuel for a reactor in the system. In an exampleimplementation, source 1 can include an oil well riser, which canprovide fuel for the reactor in the form of waste material from an oilwell to a water, oil, and gas separator 2. The separator 2 may be anexisting component of an oil well and can divide the product stream fromthe oil well into three streams, including a sour or sweet gas streamthat is fed at port 5 to a first charger system 4 that can supply fuelto the supercritical water oxidation reactor 7. The first charger system4, in the system 100, can be referred to herein as a “U” charger. Theseparator 2 also may supply oil well production water to a surge tank48. Oil from the separator 2 can be routed to one or more storage tanks63 through an input port 3 to the tanks.

The sour or sweet well gas is drawn into first charger system 4, heatedand pressurized and sent forward through port 6 to port 8 on asupercritical water oxidation reactor 7. The first charger system 4 canuse pressure and energy from the reactor 7 gases to cycle, transferringpressure and heat to sour or sweet gases that are received in thecharger system through port 5. Not shown are check and control valvesthat control the flow, or admission of the gas into the reactor 7 andmanagement of the first charger system 4. Reactor 7 also can be fedother reactant streams including air, water, and liquid hydrocarbon whenavailable.

A high-volume moderate pressure blower 13 gathers and compresses air tofeed into a second charger system 11. Pressure and heat of the gasesleaving the supercritical reactor 7 can feed into second charger system11 and into first charger system 4 from port 14 of the reactor 7 to port16 of the first charger system 4 and port 15 of the second chargersystem 11. The heat and pressure received from the reactor 7 can heatand pressurize air that is input to the charger systems 4 and 11 (e.g.,respectively through port 5 and from blower 13) to pressures high enoughto enter the reactor 7 through ports 8 and 10. Heated and pressurizedgas from charger system 11 can be sent forward through port 12 to inputport 10 on the supercritical water oxidation reactor 7.

Spent exhaust steam from cycling first charger system 4 and cyclingsecond charger system 11 can be forwarded through ports 17 and 18,respectively, to vapor condenser 19 though an input port 20 to thecondenser, where the steam is condensed, and pure distilled water isreleased from port 22 to fill a distilled water tank 25. Some of thispure water can be pumped back to the reactor 7, by way of high-pressurepump 64 and received at the reactor at port 65.

Oily water in a surge tank 48 can be pushed forward and pressurized by apump 47 and then sent through a micro hydro cyclone bank 46 where freeoils and droplets (e.g., having diameters as low as 15 microns) can bepushed through cyclone port 50 to a surge tank 51 and, further, toreactor pressure feed tank 52. Check valves (not shown) can prevent backflow from the reactor 7 to the cyclone separator bank 46. When gassesinput to the first charger system 4 have reached a sufficiently highpressure (e.g., a pressure above an operating pressure of the reactor7), a control valve on port 53 opens allowing some water to flow fromthe first charger system 4 to a pressure feed tank 52. This pressurizestank 52 and its contents above the reactor pressure, forcing the oilywater past check valves 54 and on to the reactor 7 via port 9, where theoily waters become fuel for the reactor 7.

Another stream from the micro hydro cyclone bank 46 can be sent fromcyclone discharge 49 to high efficiency recycling molecular membraneosmosis unit 43 and into the unit 43 though an input port 45. Unit 43can divide the stream into very clean water that leaves the molecularmembrane osmosis unit 43 by way of port 44, from which the clean wateris delivered to a clean water tank 25.

The remaining stream from the cyclone bank 46, containing additionalhydrocarbons, organics, minerals and sands, can be then pumped forwardto join the oily water in reactor pressure feed tank 52 through an inputport 55 to the tank 52. It is then fed to the reactor 7, again throughport 9, and reactor 7 breaks down remaining hydrocarbons and reacts andoxidizes remaining minerals to form salts and oxide crystals in thereactor 7.

The reaction in reactor 7 creates hot gases that leave the reactor 7through port 14. The reactor 7 also produces surplus supercritical waterthat exits the reactor 7 along with any produced oxides or inertcompounds via port 26.

Port 26 can deliver supercritical water from the reactor 7 tosupercritical water generator system drive column pressure vessels(columns, drive columns, etc.) 27 a and 27 b, via ports 28 and 29,respectively. Drive columns 27 a and 27 b can include pressure vesselsconfigured to hold water with a volume of air in a head space above thewater in the vessel. Control valves can meter, or admit small doses ofsupercritical water into the drive columns 27 a and 27 b, where, withreference to the column 27 a, the supercritical water explodes to steamin the head space above the water in the column, thus driving the watercolumn down and out through port 32 and from port 32 through a checkvalve 33 to nozzle 66 on the hydraulic drive generator 38. In thisexample, column 27 b can operate in like manner as column 27 a toprovide water to the nozzle 66. The hydraulic drive generator 38 caninclude one or more systems that convert kinetic energy and/or heat ofthe water received through nozzle 66 into electrical energy. Forexample, in an embodiment, the hydraulic drive generator 38 can includea direct drive Pelton wheel that is used to drive a generator/alternator39 that outputs electrical power through a conductor 40.

Again, with reference to the drive column 27 a, which also applies tocolumn 27 b, as the kinetic energy of the water is used to drive thehydro turbine, the drive water falls to a collection launder 41 and fromthere, by way of gravity or a pump, can be directed into the drivecolumns 27 a to replenish, through port 42, water from the column thatwas used to drive the generator 39.

As the columns 27 a and 27 b are refilled with water, the water pushesthe remaining steam from the supercritical water supplied at thebeginning of the cycle up and out through respective ports 30 and 31,from where it is delivered forward to condenser 19 through an input port21 on the condenser 19, where the steam is cooled and becomes purewater. The cooled and condensed water can then leave the condensercollection port 22 and flow to pure water tank 25.

In the plurality of hydraulic drive columns 27 a, 27 b, residualmaterial (e.g., minerals, compounds, and salts, and solids) from thesupercritical water oxidation reaction in reactor 7 are transferred withthe supercritical water to the columns 27 a, 27 b. As the supercriticalwater flashes to steam in the columns 27 a, 27 b, residual materialsuspended in the water is released from the steam and precipitates outinto the water in the columns 27 a, 27 b. These elements remain in thewater that enters the generator 38 as the water circulates through thehydro turbine 38 until such time as a portion of the water at the bottomof the water column is pulled off when pressure in the column is at itspeak. A small side stream drawn from the bottom of the water columns 27a, 27 b can be tapped off of port 32 and passed to a molecular membraneunit 34. The cleaned water output from the membrane unit can be passedthrough a check valve 37 back into the collection launder 41, while thebrines, oxides, acids and inert materials are redirected through port 35to a collection vat 36.

The system 100 further includes a heat exchanger built into condenser 19that can heat a glycol loop that is pumped by pump 56 through aprecooler 57 and then on to an oil tank heater circuit 59, 60 andreturning to the condenser 19 on line 61 through port 24, after passingthrough the crude tanks 63 to keep them up to temperature. In anotherembodiment, such a heating circuit, such as the heater circuits 59, 60,may be used to heat water for a community to provide hot water. In someimplementations, the precooler 57, or an additional air exchange cooler,may be located at the incoming position (e.g., a port 24) to condenser19 if temperatures in the tank farm heater circuits 59, 60 are not lowenough to cool the condenser.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a supercritical water oxidation reactorsystem 200 in another embodiment. The system 200 is similar to that ofFIG. 1 , except that the reactor 7 is fueled by biogas and liquid bio orsewage slurry, rather than oil well production water or products.

Thus, in FIG. 2 , rather than an oil well riser that provides fuel tothe reactor, as in the system 100 shown in FIG. 1 , instead, the system200 includes an anaerobic digestor 67 that provides a source ofbio-waste and/or sewage waste that is used as fuel in the reactor 7.Sour biogas can leave the digestor 67 through port 68, which ties into aliquid gas separator 2. Sludge from the digestor 67 can be pumped fromport 69 of the digestor 67 into the surge tank 48 through an input port70 on the tank.

In other embodiments, fuel can be supplied to the reactor 7 in otherways. For example, fuel can be supplied by way of one or more of ahopper, shredder, and/or a feed auger/extruder that feeds shredded fuel,such as waste materials, including plastic, paper, and/or biomaterials(e.g., peanut shells, husks, etc.) in their shredded state directly intoreactor pressure feed tank 52.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a system 300 that includes chargersystem 303 operably coupled to a supercritical water oxidation reactor304, in which energy from byproducts (e.g., heat, steam, hot water) ofreactions within the reactor 304 are used in the charger system 303 tocompress gases (e.g., air, fuel) and/or water to pressures exceeding theoperating pressure of the reactor 304 for input to the reactor at thehigh pressures. The charger system 303 can compress the gases andliquids without the use of a mechanical piston having a ring that formsa seal against an inner wall of a cylinder. Instead, the charger system303 can include a vessel that is partially filled with a liquid (e.g.,water) and that includes a first gas pocket at a first end of the vesseland a second gas pocket at a second end of the vessel, where the firstand second gas pockets are separated by the liquid in the vessel, andwhere the liquid acts as, or forms a water trap seal, or liquid slug,that provides a seals against the inner wall of the vessel 312 tomaintain separation between the first and second gas pockets.

Air and fuel gases for charging the reactor 304 can be introduced intothe first gas pocket, and then the second gas pocket can be pressurizedusing energy from the reactor 304. The pressure in the second gas pocketcan be transmitted to the gases in the first gas pocket through movementof the liquid in the water trap. When the pressure of the gases in thefirst gas pocket is sufficiently high (e.g., is greater than theoperating pressure of the reactor 304), high-pressure gas from the firstpocket can be released into the reactor. Pressure can be released fromthe charger system 303 to allow the introduction of a new amount of airand/or fuel gas to be introduced to the first gas pocket of the chargersystem 303. For example, low temperature water (e.g., in the form of amist) can be used to cool gas and liquids in the second air pocket toreduce the temperature of the gas and liquids, and then the gas can bevented or released from the second air pocket to a condenser. When thepressure in the second air pocket decreases, a vacuum is created, whichdraws the water in the vessel toward the second air pocket, thuscreating additional volume in the first air pocket for the introductionof new air and/or fuel gases to be introduced to the first air pocketfor compression in a subsequent cycle.

In an implementation, the vessel of the charger system 303 can include ahollow U-shaped pressure vessel 312 having two ends 315, 316. Thepressure vessel 312 can include one or more walls that define a hollowinterior cavity that is configured to be partially filled with water,with a gas pocket on each side of the water. In an implementation, thevessel 312 can include a single cylindrical casting. In anotherimplementation, the vessel can include two straight pipe spools that areconnected with two 90-degree spools, as a welded pipe assembly. Thevessel 312 can be made of material capable of withstanding highpressure, for example, stainless steel, carbon fiber, copper, or ceramicmaterial. The material and wall thickness of the casting or weldedspools of the vessel 312 are such that the vessel 312 can withstand themaximum pressure expected plus a safety margin or safety factor. Theinner wall surface of the vessel 312 may include a corrosion-resistantsteel or composite material or the interior can be lined with acorrosion-resistant material that can handle the design temperatures.The tops of the U-shaped pressure vessel 312 can be enclosed by a blindflange arrangement or by high-pressure bolts on cylindrical head(s)located at ends 315 and 316. In some implementations, hemisphericalpressure heads may be used, rather than high pressure blind flangesand/or high-pressure bolts.

The vessel 312 can be partially filled with liquid (e.g., water). With aU-shaped vessel 312 oriented in a vertical position with the ends 315,316 located in the tops of first and second straight legs, respectively,located above, with respect to a direction of gravity, the curvedportion of the vessel, the liquid in the vessel 312 can act as a sealingtrap, or liquid slug, between a first gas pocket located at a first end316 of the vessel and a second gas pocket located at a second end 315 ofthe vessel.

As shown in FIG. 3 , the liquid in the vessel is in an equilibriumposition in which water reaches level L2 in a first side 301 of thevessel and reaches a level L2 and a second side 302 of the vessel.During operation of the system 300, the water levels inside the vessel312 rise and fall as the water inside the vessel moves back and forthbetween the first side 301 and the second side 302 in response toincreasing and decreasing pressures in the first and second air pocketslocated at ends 315, 316 of the vessel. For example, under a highpressure in the air pocket in the first end 316 and a low pressure inthe air pocket at the second end 315, the water can move to a level L3in the first side 301 and to a level L3 in the second side 302, andunder a low pressure in the air pocket in the first end 316 and a highpressure in the air pocket at the second end 315, the water can move toa level L1 in the first side 301 and to a level L1 in the second side302.

Vessel 312 can include gas ports (e.g., a low-pressure inlet port 317and a high-pressure outlet port 318) located in vessel end 316 and gasports (e.g., a high-pressure gas inlet port 319, a gas outlet port 321)and a high-pressure, high-temperature liquid inlet port 395 located invessel end 315. The vessel also contains a low-temperature liquid inletport 320 located in vessel end 315, and a liquid port 395 located in aside of the vessel between the vessel end 315 and the U-shaped portionof the vessel, and a liquid port 325 located in the U-shaped portion ofthe vessel.

An additional liquid port 335 can be included in the first side 301 ofthe vessel 312 below a lowest liquid level L3 under first end 316. Anadditional liquid port 395 can be included in the second side 302 of thevessel, for example, located below an equilibrium level L2 of the waterin the second side 302 of the vessel. The charger system 303 can includeliquid level sensors 338, 337, and 336 positioned on or within vessel312 to sense when the liquid level in the first side 301 of the vesselis at levels L1, L2, and L3, respectively, below vessel end 316.Similarly, the charger system 303 can include liquid level sensors 339,340, and 341 positioned on or within vessel 312 to sense when the liquidlevel in the second side 302 of the vessel is at levels L1, L2, and L3,respectively, below vessel end 315.

Signals from the sensors 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, and 341 can beprovided to a controller 305 that controls the operation of the system300, for example, through opening and closing of valves in the system.Sensors 338 and 341 transmit signals indicating a maximum fluid level atthe respective vessel ends of the vessel at which the sensors 338 and341 are located. Sensors 336 and 339 transmit minimum fluid levelinformation for their respective vessel legs. Sensors 337 and 340transmit return to equilibrium liquid level information.

The liquid in vessel 312 can absorb heat from the gases received fromthe reactor 304 gases through port 319 and distributed by the sparger324 and gives up, or transfers heat to gas and liquid in the vessel 312.Liquid is cycled through vessel 312 at an optimized rate to maintain anoptimized temperature to absorb a significant portion of the wasteexhaust heat arriving into the vessel 312 via sparger 324.

A pressure transducer 360 can be located at the first end 316 of thevessel 312 to measure pressure of gasses in the first gas pocket at thefirst end 316 of the vessel. Thermometer (e.g., thermocouples) can belocated in thermal wells 365 and 366 of the first side 301 and secondside 302, respectively, of the U-shaped vessel 312 to measuretemperature in vessel 312's ends 316 and 315, respectively, above anequilibrium level L2 of the water in each side of the vessel. Thetemperature of the liquid in the vessel also can be measured, forexample, by temperature transmitter 369 at liquid port 325 in theU-shaped portion of the vessel that is below the minimum liquid level L3of the liquid in the first side 301 of the vessel and below the minimumliquid level L1 of the liquid in the second side 302 of the vessel.

A control valve 373 (e.g., a solenoid valve that operates underelectronic control, a check valve that operates in response to apressure differential on different sides of the valve, or otherautomated valve) can be operated to supply air to the first air pocketat the first end 316 of the vessel 312 through port 317. In someimplementations, the air can be supplied at atmospheric pressure throughport 317. In some implementations, a blower 383 can supply air at apressure higher than atmospheric pressure through port 317 to the firstair pocket at the first and 316 of the vessel 312.

In another embodiment, air from blower 383 can be directed into vessel312 through port 335 by opening a control valve 386 (e.g., a solenoidvalve, a check valve, or other automated valve). Control valve 374(e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve, or other automated valve) can beopened/closed to control the flow of pressurized gases from the firstair pocket near first end 316 of the vessel out of port 318 and into thereactor 304, and can be controlled to block the pressurized, charge airfrom leaving the first end 316 of the vessel 312 until the gas reaches apressure greater than the pressure inside of the reactor 304, andconversely prevents high pressure fluids from returning from reactor 304while the pressure in vessel 312 is below the operating pressure of thereactor 304.

The pressure of the air trapped in the first air pocket near the firstend 316 of vessel 312 can be increased by the liquid level in the firstside 301 of the vessel 312 rising from level L3 or L2 to L1. This changein liquid level can be driven by increasing the pressure of the secondair pocket at the second end 315 of the vessel. For example, opening acontrol valve 375 (e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve, or otherautomated valve) connected between the reactor 304 and a port 319 at thesecond end 315 of the vessel can allow high-pressure gases from thereactor 304 into the second air pocket in the vessel 312, thusincreasing the pressure in the second air pocket and forcing the waterin the vessel down in the second side 302 of the vessel and up in thefirst side 301. In an implementation, the hot gases from the reactor 304can be injected through port 319 and out of a sparger 324 located withinthe vessel 312 at an end of a conduit that passes through the port 319.The sparger 324 may include a metal or ceramic cylinder, with one ormore openings at the end of the cylinder and one or more openings in theround wall of the cylinder through which steam escapes from the conduitinto the air pocket at the second end 315 of the vessel. The sparger 324may be located, such that it is at least partially below liquid level L3on the second side 302 of the vessel, such that when the liquid level isat L3, steam from the sparger 324 is emitted into the liquid and alsointo the air pocket above the liquid level.

When the hot gasses are received through port 319 and are emitted fromthe sparger 324, they can bubble through the liquid and move to the headspace of the second air pocket at the second end 315 of the vessel 312,thus forcing the liquid down in the second side 302 of the vessel 312,and up in the first side 301 of the vessel 312. This movement of theliquid increases the pressure of the gas in the first air pocket in thehead space at the first end 316 of the vessel 312, thereby preparing thegas to be to be delivered to the reactor 304 from the first end 316 ofthe vessel. The action of bubbling the gases through the sparger 324 canlower the temperature of the hot gases and transfer heat to the liquidin the vessel.

Pressure in the second air pocket at the second end 316 of the vesselcan also be increased by the introduction of hot water (e.g.,supercritical water) received from the reactor through port 380 byopening a control valve 381 (e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve, orother automated valve) in a conduit between the reactor 304 and the port380. The hot water can be injected into a metal or ceramic cup or bowl391 located within the vessel 312 at the second end 315 of the vessel,so that the water flashes to steam in the second air pocket at thesecond end 315 of the vessel 312 and increasing the pressure in thevessel. A conduit that supplies hot water (e.g., supercritical water)from the reactor to the charging system 303, and other conduits in thesystem 300, can be made of, or lined with, a non-reactive material(e.g., ceramic, PTFE, stainless steel, etc.) to mitigate corrosion bythe water. Additionally, one or more oxygen sensors 359 in the system300 can monitor an amount of oxygen in water or vapor flowing throughone or more conduits and/or in the reactor 304, and the reaction in thereactor 304 can be controlled to maintain a measured oxygen amount belowa predetermined threshold value to mitigate corrosion within theconduits and/or valves connected to the conduits.

In an implementation, when a pressure of the air pocket at the first end316 of the vessel (e.g., as measured by a pressure transducer 360)exceeds a first threshold value (e.g., equal to the operating pressureof the reactor 304), then valve 375 can close to block gases fromtransmission between the reactor 304 and the second air pocket at thesecond end 315 of the vessel through port 319, and a control valve 376(e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve, or other automated valve) canopen to admit a momentary spray of water pumped by pump 371 from a waterreservoir 370 through port 320 into the second end 315 of the vessel.The spray of water can be introduced as a mist into the hot gases at thesecond end 315, such that droplets of the mist expand to steam, thusincreasing the pressure in the second end 315.

In addition, control valve 379 (e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve,or other automated valve) can be opened to pass high pressure waterthrough the port 395 into the second side 302 of the vessel 312, furtherpressurizing the charge air in the first air pocket at first end 316.When the pressure transducer 360 detects that the pressure in vessel 312exceeds a second threshold value (e.g., a pressure greater than thepressure in reactor vessel 304 by a preset amount, typically more than50 psi), control valve 374 (e.g., a solenoid valve, a check valve, orother automated valve) can be opened to transmit the charge air from thefirst air pocket through port 318 and into the reactor 304 through port330.

To ensure that a desired amount of water remains in the vessel 312 andin the reactor 304 and to extract heat from vessel 312, when thepressure transducer 360 detects that the pressure in vessel 312 hasfallen below a third threshold value (e.g., a pressure slightly abovethe pressure in reactor 304, e.g., 10 psi higher than the operatingpressure of the reactor 304) or when a water level sensor 338 detectsthat the liquid level in the first side 301 of the vessel has reached amaximum level L1, valve 374 can be closed, and control valve 328 (e.g.,a solenoid valve, a check valve, or other automated valve) can be openedto allow liquid to pass out of a port 325 in vessel 312 and through aport 329 into the reactor vessel 304. Valve 328 can remain open untilthe liquid level under head space in the second side 302 of the vesseldrops below a lower level L3, at which point valve 376 can open to allowwater to be pumped from reservoir 370 and sprayed into the second airpocket at the second end 315 of the vessel 312 until a metered amount ofwater is injected into the vessel. Once a water level in the vesselexceeds a minimum threshold level or the measured amount of waterintroduced (e.g., as indicated by a number of revolutions of a fixeddisplacement pump, such as the pump 371), valve 328 can be closed, andvalve 376 can be closed, so that water neither enters nor exits thevessel 312. Then, valve 373 can be opened and valve 377 can be opened tovent steam and pressure from the second air pocket at the second end 315through port 321 to a condenser 392 where water vapor is condensed andthen routed to a storage tank 393. With valve 373 open, new charge air,pushed in by the blower 383, can enter the head space in the first airpocket at the first end 316 of the vessel, and pushing the water leveldown on the first side 301 of the vessel and up on the second side 302of the vessel, thus pushing the remaining reactor gas (now cooled) andsteam from the second air pocket out through port 321 and into condenser392.

When the water level in the second side 302 of the vessel reaches L3(e.g., as determined by water level sensor 341), valve 377 can beclosed, and shortly thereafter valve 373 can be closed. At this point,the vessel 312 of the charging system 303 is prepared to cycle throughanother charge of air again, beginning with the opening of valve 375 toadmit hot gasses from the reactor into the second air pocket at thesecond end of the vessel through port 319.

Valves of the system 300 (e.g., valves 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 379,381, 386, 328) can be operated under computer control by the controller305. The controller can include one or more memory devices storingcomputer readable instructions and one or more processors configured forexecuting the instructions. The instructions may be executed toprogrammatically control operation of the system 300. For example, thetiming of the opening and closing of the valves of the system 300 can becontrolled such that the water in the vessel 312 cycles back and forthbetween a first state having a level L3 in the first and second ends316, 315 of the vessel 312 in which charge gas is loaded into the firstair pocket at the first end 316 of the vessel, and a second state havinga level L1 in the first and second ends of the vessel, in which thecharge gas is compressed to a pressure higher than the operatingpressure of the reactor 304. Thus, the charger system 303 can operate ina two-stroke cycle, in which gas is loaded into the first air pocket ina first stroke of the water movement within the vessel 312 and then thatgas is compressed in a second stroke of the water movement. The movementof the slug of water within the vessel 312 can have a naturaloscillation frequency that can depend on physical parameters, including,for example, the mass of the water. In some implementations, the timingof the opening and closing of the valves can be selected such that thewater in the vessel 312 is pushed back and forth within the vesselbetween its first state and its second state at a frequency thatmatches, or is close to (e.g., within about 10%), the naturaloscillation frequency of the water in the vessel.

Although the configuration of the charger system 303 has been describedherein primarily in the context of a U-shaped vessel, otherconfigurations of a charger system having first and second air pocketsseparated by a water slug that couples pressure in one air pocket toanother are also possible.

For example, FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a vessel 412 that can beused in a charger system. The vessel 412 can include a right cylindricalcavity, for example, fabricated from a single spool of pipe, with aplaten 440 that separates a first side 401 of the vessel from a secondside 402 of the vessel, where the platen 440 extends from a top 450 ofthe vessel downward into a hollow interior cavity of the vessel but notall the way to the bottom 452 of the vessel.

Water can partially fill the interior cavity of the vessel 412 and canmove back and forth two different sides of the platen 440 between afirst state in which water is at levels L3 on the left and right sides401, 402 of the vessel 412 and a second state in which water is a levelsL1 on the first and second sides of the vessel. Charge gas can be loadedinto a first air pocket at the first end 416 of the vessel when thewater is in the first state and can be compressed to a high-pressurewhen the water is forced into the second state be the introduction ofenergy from the reactor into a second air pocket at the second end 415of the vessel.

Other configurations of a vessel for use in the charging system 303 arealso possible. For example, first and second chambers can be coupled bya tube or pipe, with water being loaded into the tube or pipe to createa transmission mechanism for transferring pressure from one chamber tothe other. For example, the first chamber can be used to load chargegases, and the second chamber can be used to receive high-pressure gasfor liquid from a reactor, thus increasing the pressure of the secondchamber, which then transmits the increased pressure through the waterin the connecting tube or pipe to the first chamber.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of system 500 including a plurality ofcharging systems 503 connected in parallel for use in compressing gasfor use in a reactor. The plurality of charging systems can be coupledby a manifold 510 where first side 511 of the manifold supplies lowpressure charge gas and/or fuel gas to the plurality of charging systems503 to be compressed before being fed to a reactor, and a second side512 of the manifold 510 supplies high pressure gas and/or water from thereactor that is used to pressurize the charge gas or fuel gas. Thesupply of low-pressure charge gas and/or fuel gas and high-pressure gasand/or water to each of the plurality of charging systems can becontrolled independently, such that the high-pressure charge gas can bedelivered from different charging systems to the reactor at differenttimes. This can dampen motion of the assembly of the different chargingsystems, for example, by reducing a range of motion of a center of massof the system as the water in the different charging systems 503 movesback and forth. In addition, it can smooth temperature and/or pressurevariations in various parts of the entire system, including, forexample, the reactor, and in individual charging systems 503.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of another implementation of the system300, in which the charger system 303 is used to compress fuel gas (e.g.,natural gas, sour gas, biogas, or other fuel gases), liquid fuel, and/orsolid fuel to pressures exceeding the operating pressure of the reactorfor input to the reactor at the high pressures.

As shown in FIG. 6 , a fuel gas source 683 can be operably connected tothe first air pocket at the first end 316 of the charger system 303through a conduit that runs from the fuel gas source 683 to port 317.The gas source can be any source of fuel gas, including, for example, atank of gas, a gas line (e.g., from an oil well, or other productionfacility), etc. Fuel gas can be supplied from the fuel gas source 683 tothe first air pocket through the port 317, and the supply of the fuelgas can be controlled by control valve 373. In an implementation, thefuel gas can be supplied from the fuel gas source 683 at a pressuregreater than atmospheric pressure and/or at a pressure greater than apredetermine pressure that is experienced by the first air pocket at thefirst end 316 of the charger at some time during a cycle of the liquidslug in the vessel 312. The valve 373 can include a check valve thatopens when a predetermined pressure differential exists between apressure of the fuel gas source on one side of the valve and a pressureof the first gas pocket on another side of the valve. In anotherimplementation, the valve 373 can include a solenoid valve that isopened and closed by an electrical current (e.g., supplied by controller305).

In another implementation, fuel gas can be supplied from fuel gas source683 to within a first side 301 of the vessel 312 at a location that isbelow a level of the liquid slug or at a location that is below a levelof the or liquid slug at least some time during a cycle of the liquidslug. For example, fuel gas can be supplied under control of a valve 386through a port 335 into a first side 301 of the vessel and into theliquid plug, and bubbles of fuel gas can rise to the first air pocket atthe first end 316 of the vessel for compression and then injection intothe reactor 304.

In another implementation, liquid fuel and/or solid fuel suspended in aliquid from a fuel supply 695 can be injected into the reactor 304 bypressurized liquid from the charging system 303. The fuel supply 695 mayprovide fuel in the form of a sludge or slurry, which may includevarious forms of reactable liquids or solids, including, for example,shredded or blended garbage, wood pulp, sewage sludge, ground kelp,grass, hay, slurried peanut or soybean shells, crude oil, tank bottoms,animal renderings, and many more potential solid or liquid fuels for usein the reactor 304. The fuel supply 695 may include a shredder 696configured to break down solid materials and an auger 697 configured totransport materials from the supply 695 to a slurry chamber 627. Inanother embodiment, the fuel supply may include a port configured forpumping a sludge or liquid fuel from the supply 695 to the slurrychamber 627.

To load fuel from the slurry chamber 627 into the reactor 304, in anexample implementation, when pressure transducer 360 sends a signalindicating that the pressure in the vessel 312 exceeds a thresholdpressure (e.g., a pressure greater than the operating pressure of thereactor 304 equal or when the liquid level sensor 338 detects that thelevel of the liquid slug has reached a threshold level in the first sideof the vessel 312, valve 374 can be closed and then, with valve 626closed, control valves 628 and 629 can be opened. In this state, liquidfrom the liquid slug in the vessel 312 can pass through port 325 and,from there, into and through the slurry loading chamber 627 thatcontains liquid and/or solid fuel, and from thence into the reactor 304to deliver a paste, slurry, or liquid fuel to the reactor 304. Followinga metered amount of paste flush (e.g., as measured by a flow meter 669or as determined based on valves 628 and 629 being open for apredetermined time), valve 628 is closed.

With valve 628 closed, liquid and/or solid fuel can be loaded from thefuel supply 695 into the slurry chamber 627. For example, after fuel gasfrom supply 683 is loaded into the first air pocket at the first end 316of the vessel 312 while the level of the liquid slug in the first side301 of the vessel falls, then when the level of the liquid slug in thefirst side 301 of the vessel is below the level of sensor 337 at anequilibrium level L2 of the liquid slug, control valve 373 can close,thus shutting off the flow of fuel gas. With valve 377 open, valve 626in a conduit between fuel supply 695 and slurry chamber 627 can beopened and with valve 629 open, pressurized slurry, sludge, orhydrocarbon liquid can be pumped into the slurry loading chamber 627.When the predetermined sludge charge is completed, valve 626 can beclosed, followed by the closing of valve 629 closing next. With theclosure of valve 377, the charging system 303 is then ready to bebrought up to pressure by the introduction of energy from the reactor304 into the second air pocket at the second end 315 of the vessel 312and to repeat the cycle of loading fuel from the slurry chamber 627 intothe reactor 304.

In a system 300 that includes a plurality of charging systems 303 thatsupply materials to the reactor 304, different system 303 can be used tocompress and load different materials into the reactor 304. For example,one or more charging systems 303 can be used to compress and loadoxygenated air into the reactor 304, while different charging systems303 of the plurality can be used to compress and load fuel gas into thereactor 304, and while additional different charging systems 303 of theplurality can be used to compress and load solid or liquid fuel into thereactor 304.

In some implementations, the cycle time in which air and or fuel gas iscompressed and loaded into the reactor can be shorter than the loadingtime to supply liquid and/or solid fuel from the supply 695 to theslurry chamber 627. In such a case, the slurry chamber 627 may be loadedduring a time period, T1, during which a pressure in the vessel 312 isrelatively low, for example, when control valve 377 between the secondair pocket at the second and 315 of the vessel 312 and the condenser 392is open and valves 374, 375 between the vessel 312 and the reactor 304are closed and valve 376 between the high-pressure liquid pump 371 andthe vessel 312 is closed. However, this time period may be longer than atime period, T2, during which air or fuel gas is supplied to the firstair pocket at the first end 316 of the vessel 312. For example, T1 canbe more than 100 times longer than T2. Thus, in a charging system 303that is used to provide liquid and/or solid fuel (e.g., from a slurrychamber 627) to a high-pressure reactor using energy provided by thereactor, the charging system 303 may operate with a cycle time in whichgas is provided to the first gas pocket of the vessel 312 during a firststroke of the cycle and energy from the reactor is provided to thesecond cast pocket of the vessel 312 during a second stroke of thecycle, but that cycle may be paused to allow for the loading of theslurry chamber while the slurry chamber is under relatively lowpressure.

In another implementation, the system 300 can include a plurality ofcharging systems 303, where each of the plurality of charging systems303 can have different capacities and dimensions that are selected basedon the material that they are configured to provide to the reactor 304.For example, if a loading time for a first charging system that suppliessolid material to the reactor is greater than a loading time for asecond charging system that supplies gaseous material to the reactor,the dimensions of the first charging system may be selected such that anatural frequency of the liquid slug in the first charging system islower than a natural frequency of the liquid slug in the second chargingsystem to permit more time to load the solid and/or liquid material thatis needed to load the gaseous material.

Referring again to FIG. 1 , energy produced in reactor 7 through theoxidation of fuel in the reactor can be converted into electricalenergy. For example, energy produced by the reactor 7 can be convertedinto kinetic energy of a liquid (e.g., water) that drives the hydraulicdrive generator 38 that converts kinetic energy and/or heat of theliquid into electrical energy.

In example implementations, water (e.g., supercritical water) can bemetered out of a high-pressure, high-temperature reactor, and the watercan be discharged into the head space of a vessel that is partially(e.g., but mostly) filled with a liquid. The head space into which thewater is discharged can have a lower pressure than the water output fromthe reactor, such that when the water is discharged into the head spaceabove the liquid in the vessel, it explodes into steam, thus increasinga pressure of the liquid in the vessel (e.g., to a pressure close tothat of the operating pressure of the reactor). With the liquid in thevessel now pressurized by the release of energy from the reactor (e.g.,in the form of steam) having been injected into the vessel, the highlypressurized liquid in the vessel can be released from the vessel andinto a hydroelectric drive system (e.g., a Pelton wheel generator) todrive the hydroelectric drive system to produce electricity.

With the release of pressurized liquid from the vessel, head space inthe vessel increases, thus reducing the pressure and temperature of gasin the head space. By controlling an amount of water injected into thevessel from the reactor to pressurize the liquid in the vessel, such asin relation to the dimensions of the vessel, the amount of liquid in thevessel when the water from the reactor is injected, the temperature ofthe liquid in the vessel, etc. the pressure and temperature of gas inthe vessel after the release of pressurized liquid from the vessel tothe hydroelectric drive system can be controlled. For example, thetemperature of gas in the vessel after the release of pressurized liquidfrom the vessel to the hydroelectric drive system can be controlled tobe lower than 120° C. and the pressure can controlled to be less than 20psi. After pressurized liquid has been released from the vessel to drivethe hydroelectric drive system, and, for example, with the pressure ofthe vessel being close to atmospheric pressure, liquid in the vessel canbe replenished. The addition of liquid to the vessel can push steam andvapors out of the head space of the vessel, for example, into acondenser (e.g., the condenser 19 in FIG. 1 ), and the steam and vaporscan be captured and turned back into liquid. The process of pressurizingliquid in the vessel with energy from the reactor, driving thehydroelectric drive system with the pressurized liquid, replenishing thevessel with liquid, and pushing vapor out of the vessel can then beginagain.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a hydraulic drive system 700. In thesystem 700, energy produced by a supercritical water reactor 714 is usedto drive a hydroelectric drive system 711 to produce electrical powerand to remove reaction byproducts (e.g., solid, particulate, and solublebyproducts) from the reactor 714. The system 700 includes a pressurevessel 720 that includes a hollow interior cavity defined by one or moreinner walls 721 of the vessel. Vessel 720 can be made of one or morematerials capable of, and designed and configured for, withstandingpressures inside the inner cavity that exceed an operating pressure ofthe supercritical water reactor 714 by a predetermined threshold amount(e.g., pressures of 3000 psi, 5000 psi, 7500 psi). For example, thevessel 720 can include a cast metal or a welded assembly that definesthe hollow inner cavity and that is provided with flanges, high-pressurebolt-on cylindrical head(s), or other means of closure and/orinspection. The hollow interior cavity of the vessel 720 can beconfigured to include liquid (e.g., water) 722 and an air pocket or ahead space 703 above the liquid 722. The liquid 722 in the vessel 720can be cycled between an upper level L1 and a lower level L2 bycontrolling a variable volume of liquid 722 in the vessel. Additionally,the pressure of gas in the air pocket 703 and of the liquid 722 in thevessel 720 can be controlled by controlling an amount and pressure ofgas and/or liquid that is injected into the air pocket 703.

The vessel 720 can include liquid ports 736, 738 configured for liquidto flow into and/or out of the vessel 720, and gas ports 732, 739configured for gas to flow into and/or out of the vessel. The flow ofliquid through liquid ports 736, 738 can be controlled by control valves706, 708, respectively. The flow of gas through gas ports 732, 739 canbe controlled by control valves 702, 709, respectively. In animplementation with an elongated vessel having a first end 750 and asecond end 752, liquid ports 736, 738 can be located at a first (e.g.,bottom or lower) end 750 of the vessel 720, and gas ports 732, 739 canbe located at a second (e.g., top or upper) end 752 of the vessel 720.

A drive liquid (e.g., water) 722, can be initially loaded into vessel720, until the liquid reaches a predetermined level L1 in the vessel.The liquid level can be determined by a liquid level sensor 704, and thepredetermined level L1 can be located sufficiently below the top ofvessel 720 to ensure a sufficient volume in the air pocket 703 toreceive gas to pressurize the interior of the vessel.

Water that is pressurized by reactions within the supercritical waterreactor 714 can be released from a port 741 in the reactor into aconduit 701 that feeds the water into the vessel 720 through port 732.The release of the water from the supercritical water reactor 714 can becontrolled by a control valve 743. The water released from thesupercritical water reactor 714 can include one or more byproducts fromthe reactions that occur within the reactor, for example, salts,minerals, acids that result from the reactions within the reactor 714.In some implementations, the conduit 701 can include a metal tube. Insome implementations, an inner wall of the conduit can be lined with anon-reactive material, such as, for example, ceramic, PTFE, etc. toprotect an inner wall surface from corrosive and/or abrasive byproductsof reactions in the reactor 714 that may be the carried in water in theconduit. For example, reaction byproduct materials may not be dissolvedin supercritical water as readily as they are in water that is not in asupercritical state, but rather may be suspended in the supercriticalwater solution, such that they may be more abrasive when transported bysupercritical water, and therefore a non-reactive, abrasion-resistantlining material of the conduit 701 may extend the useful lifetime of theconduit.

Pressurized water (e.g., supercritical water) from the supercriticalwater reactor 714 transported through conduit 701 can be released intothe air pocket 703 through port 732 when control valve 702 is open. Port732 may be coupled to a spray nozzle within the vessel 720. In someimplementations, a controller 755 or a timer can control the operationof control valve 702 to release a metered amount of pressurized waterfrom the supercritical water reactor 714 through port 732 and into theair pocket 703.

As the pressurized water (e.g., supercritical water) is injected (e.g.,sprayed) into the air pocket 703, it expands, and the expansion causesthe water to vaporize (i.e., flash to steam). The expansion andvaporization of the pressurized water that is injected into the airpocket 703 through port 732 causes pressure in the air pocket 703 torise quickly, e.g., to a pressure approaching the operating pressure ofthe supercritical water oxidation reactor 714. For example, a pressureof the air pocket can rise to greater than 85% of the operating pressureof the reactor. With the pressure in the air pocket 703 approaching thatof the operating pressure of the reactor 714, the flow of water from thereactor 714 to the vessel 720 slows. In addition, control valve 702 maybe closed at any point earlier in the cycle to control the amount ofliquid delivered to air pocket 703, thereby limiting the pressure to theair pocket to a given design parameter. The increased pressure in theair pocket 703 also pressurizes the liquid 722, which generally includesan incompressible liquid (e.g., water).

When the liquid 722 is pressurized, valve 708 can be opened to allowhigh-pressure water to flow out of the vessel 720 through port 738 tothe hydroelectric drive system 711. The hydroelectric drive system 711can receive the pressurized water from the vessel 720 and use thepressurized water to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.For example, the pressurized water can be used to drive a turbine (e.g.,a Pelton wheel or water turbine) that is connected to a generator oralternator that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

When water 722 exits vessel 720 and drives the hydroelectric drivesystem 711, the water level in the vessel 720 falls, for example, fromthe level L1. As the water level in 720 falls, with valve 702 open, morepressurized water from the reactor 714 flashes to steam, thus addingenergy to the air pocket 703 above the falling level of the water 722and continues to push the water 722 out of port 738. When the level ofwater 722 falls below a predetermined level in the vessel 720 and/orwhen a predetermined amount of water from the reactor 714 has beeninjected into the air pocket 703 above the water 722, valve 702 can beclosed, though water 722 can continue to exit the vessel 720 throughport 738 to supply energy in the form of pressurized water to thehydroelectric drive system 711.

When the water 722 has flowed out of the vessel 720, or reaches aminimum level L2 in the vessel (e.g., as determined by a water levelsensor 705), a pressure of the air pocket 703 in the vessel may be closeto an operating pressure of the hydroelectric drive system 711, whichmay be less than about 30 psi. At this point, control valve 709 can beopened (e.g., by controller 755) to allow gases and vapors in the airpocket 703 to be vented out of the vessel 720 through port 739, so thatthe vessel can be refilled with liquid. In some implementations, thevented gases and vapors can be routed from the vessel 720 through port739 to a condenser 725 that condenses the gases and vapors to liquid.For example, water vapor can be condensed to pure distilled water in thecondenser 725, and the condenser 725 can output the distilled water to astorage tank 715.

After the pressurized water has passed through the hydroelectric drivesystem 711, it can drop into a collector launder 712. From the collectorlaunder 712, the exhaust water from the hydroelectric drive system 711can be fed through a de-sanding cyclone 710 that separates solids and/ormineral crystals from the exhaust water and collects the solids and/ormineral crystals that were transmitted from the reactor 714 through thevessel 720 and through the hydroelectric drive system 711. The collectedsolids and/or mineral crystals can be deposited into a storage tank 771.Filtered and demineralized water then can flow from the de-sandingcyclone 710 back to the vessel 720 through port 736 to refill thevessel, where the flow of the filtered demineralized water can becontrolled by control valve 706. Refilling the vessel with the filteredand demineralized water can begin when a pressure inside the vessel isbelow a threshold value (e.g., below 40 psi, below 30 psi, below 20psi).

In an implementation, the hydroelectric drive system 711 and/or thede-sanding cyclone 710 can be located at a higher level than vessel 720,so that water for refilling the vessel 720 can be fed gravitationallyfrom the cyclone 710 to the vessel 720. In some implementations, thehydroelectric drive system 711, the launder 712 and/or the de-sandingcyclone 710 can be maintained at a pressure greater than atmosphericpressure (e.g., greater than 25 psi or 10 psi above atmosphericpressure) to provide additional pressure to the water that refills thevessel 720. Refilling the vessel 720 reduces the volume of the airpocket 703 and pushes out steam and vapor from the air pocket 703through port 739 to the condenser 725, where it is cooled to become purewater liquid. In some implementations, the condensed water from thecondenser 725 can be stored in a tank 715 for reuse in the system 700.In some implementations, the condensed water can be exported to outsidewater users or utilities.

Liquid from vessel 720 also can be output through port 737 (e.g., undercontrol by control valve 707) to a reverse osmosis filter unit 773 thatis configured to filter out the buildup of salts and acids (e.g.,sulfuric acid) from water 722 in the vessel 720. A portion ofhigh-pressure water can be bled from the column of water 722 when thecolumn is pressurized and sent forward to reverse osmosis filter unit773 for filtering, and filtered water from the reverse osmosis unit canbe stored in a storage tank 775. This can mitigate the concentration ofacids, solution-born brines and/or minerals from building up in thehydroelectric drive system 711 as liquid is circulated between thevessel 720 and the hydroelectric drive system 711 in repeated cycles ofpressurizing the air pocket 703 of the vessel 720, injectinghigh-pressure water from the vessel 720 into the hydroelectric drivesystem 711, and returning spent water from the hydroelectric drivesystem 711 to the vessel 720 (e.g., from the de-sanding cyclone 710).

In some implementations, liquid removed from the vessel 720 can bereplenished, for example, from a liquid or water source 781, where thereplenishing liquid can be pumped (e.g., by a pump 782) through a port783 into the vessel 720, where the provision of the replenishing liquidthrough the port 783 is controlled, for example, by a valve 784.

A controller 755 can monitor water levels L1 and L2 (e.g., through thereception of signals from one or more water level sensors 704, 705), aswell as temperatures and pressures in the vessel 720. The controller 755can then determine an amount of pressurized water from to meter from thereactor 714 into vessel 720 based on these inputs. The controller 755can control one or more control valves (e.g., valves 702, 706, 707, 708,709, 743, 784) in the system 700 to control operation of the system 700.In some implementations, one or more valves can operate automatically toopen and/or close in response to predetermined pressure differentials oneither side of the valve. In some implementations, one or more valvescan operate under computer, electronic, pneumatic, etc. e.g., control ofthe controller 755, to open and/or close in response to one or moresignal sent by the controller 755 to the valve.

By driving the hydroelectric drive system 711 with energy from thereactor 714 indirectly, by using energy from the reactor to pressurizevessel 720, and by using pressurized water from the vessel to power thehydroelectric drive system 711, hazardous, damaging, and corrosivereaction byproduct materials from the reactor 714 can be removed fromthe water in the reactor 714 in a manner that reduces fouling ofcomponents of the system 700, and/or concentrates the reactionbyproducts in components of the system that can be easily andeconomically replaced. For example, when supercritical water is receivedinto the vessel 720 from the reactor 714 through port 732, and isconverted to steam/vapor, because the temperature of the water 722 inthe vessel 720 can be significantly below the operating temperature ofthe reactor 714 (e.g., the temperature of the water 722 is less than100° C.), reaction byproducts that are carried in the water from thereactor 714 into the vessel 720 can precipitate out of the water and bedissolved into the water 722. Then, reaction byproducts in the liquidthat is supplied from the vessel 720 to the hydroelectric drive system711 can be removed (e.g., into a storage tank 771) by the de-sandingcyclone 710 from the loop formed by the vessel 720 and the drive system711. Additional reaction byproduct materials can be removed from thevessel/drive system loop by removing water 722 from the vessel 720 intoa reverse osmosis system 773 for processing. In this manner, reactionbyproducts and waste heat from the reactor 714 can be removed from thereactor 714, without running the reactor water through a traditionalheat exchanger system, where reaction byproducts are prone to foulinterior surfaces of the heat exchangers. Rather, the reactionbyproducts can be removed into the water 722, which water is then usedto generate electrical power by driving a hydroelectric drive system711, thus converting heat from the reactor 714 into electrical power,while solid and liquid reaction byproducts can be removed from the waterthrough the de-sanding cyclone 710 and the reverse osmosis unit 773 andrelatively low temperatures.

An additional advantage of using a column of water 722 that cyclesbetween a first upper level L1 and the second lower level L2 to receivewater and reaction byproducts from the reactor 714 and to drive thehydroelectric drive system 711 is that the vessel 720 operates withoutany moving mechanical pistons to pressurize the water 722 and to drivethe system 711. Therefore, if reaction byproducts from the reactor 714adhere to inner walls of the vessel 720 (e.g., to build up a scale onthe walls), the cycling column of water 722 can continue to operate as aliquid drive piston within the vessel, whose inner dimensions may shrinkbecause of the buildup of reaction products on the inner walls of thevessel 720.

System 700, in some implementations, can enable the use of reactor 714to drive electrical power production equipment directly off of biofuels,sour gases, and/or waste streams, such as sewage, without producingsignificant pollution emissions, and without combustion of those fuels,which can shorten the life spans of bio diesel, duel fuel, boiler tubeequipment and/or direct fire turbines. In addition, in someimplementations, the use of waste streams and biofuels can result in azero carbon footprint scenario. In addition, in some implementations,minerals, crystals and other byproducts of reactions in the reactor 714can be captured in a simple and cost-effective way that produces powerand leaves pure water as a biproduct.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a hydraulic drive system 800 in whichenergy produced by a supercritical water reactor 814 is used to drive ahydroelectric drive system 811 to produce electrical power and in whichreaction byproducts (e.g., solid, particulate, and soluble byproducts)are removed from the reactor 814. The system 800 is similar to thesystem 700 for FIG. 7 , but system 800 is shown as including a pluralityof vessels 820, 821, 822 that can act as hydraulic drive columns fordriving the hydroelectric drive system 811.

In the system 800, energy produced by a supercritical water reactor 814is used to drive a hydroelectric drive system 811 to produce electricalpower and in which reaction byproducts (e.g., solid, particulate, andsoluble byproducts) are removed from the reactor 814. The system 800includes a plurality of pressure vessels 820, 821, 822, like thepressure vessel 720 of FIG. 7 , and each pressure vessel 820, 821, 822includes a hollow interior cavity defined by one or more inner walls ofthe vessel.

The hollow interior cavities of the vessel vessels 820, 821, 822 areconfigured to include liquid (e.g., water) 832, 842, 852 and an airpocket or a head space 803, 813, 823 above the liquid 832, 842, 852. Theliquid 832, 842, 852 in a vessel 820, 821, 822 can be cycled between anupper level L1 and a lower level L2 by controlling a variable volume ofliquid in the vessel. Additionally, the pressure of gas in the airpocket 803, 813, 823 and of the liquid 832, 842, 852 in a vessel 820,821, 822 can be controlled by controlling an amount of gas that isinjected into the air pocket 803, 813, 823. For convenience, ports andvalves for controlling the amount, and pressure of, gas and liquid ineach vessel 820, 821, 822 are not shown in FIG. 8 , but the system 800can include ports and valves similar to those of system 700. In someimplementations, check valves can be used to control the flow of waterout of vessels 820, 821, 822 to the hydroelectric drive system 811 andto control the flow of water from the de-sanding cyclone 810. Forexample, a first check valve associated a vessel 820, 821, 822 can openwhen a pressure differential between a vessel pressure and ahydroelectric drive system pressure exceeds a predetermined firstthreshold and close when the pressure differential falls below the firstthreshold, and a second check valve associated a vessel 820, 821, 822can open when a pressure differential between the hydroelectric drivesystem pressure or a de-sanding cyclone pressure exceeds a predeterminedsecond threshold and close when the pressure differential falls belowthe second threshold. Valves under active control by the controller 855may be used to control the flow of high-pressure, high-temperatureliquid into the vessels 820, 821, 822 and to control the flow of gas outof the vessels 820, 821, 822 to the condenser 825.

As with the vessel 720, each vessel 820, 821, 822 can operate as ahydraulic drive piston to provide pressurized water to the hydroelectricdrive system 811, where the water is pressurized by energy received fromthe reactor in the form of hot, pressurized (e.g., supercritical) waterthat is injected into the head space 803, 813, 823 of a vessel. Eachvessel 820, 821, 822 can provide pressurized water to the hydroelectricdrive system 811. After the pressurized water has passed through thehydroelectric drive system 811, it can drop into a collector launder812. From the collector launder 812, the exhaust water from thehydroelectric drive system 811 can be fed through a de-sanding cyclone810 that collects solids and/or mineral crystals that were transmittedfrom the reactor 814 through the vessels 820, 821, 822 and through thehydroelectric drive system 811. The collected solids and/or mineralcrystals can be deposited into a storage tank 871.

Filtered and demineralized water then can flow from the de-sandingcyclone 810 back to the vessels 820, 821, 822 to refill the vessels. Inan implementation, the hydroelectric drive system 811 and/or thede-sanding cyclone 810 can be located at a higher level than vessels820, 821, 822, so that water for refilling the vessels 820, 821, 822 canbe fed gravitationally from the cyclone 810 to the vessels 820, 821,822. In some implementations, the hydroelectric drive system 811, thelaunder 812 and/or the de-sanding cyclone 810 can be maintained at apressure greater than atmospheric pressure (e.g., greater than 25 psi or10 psi above atmospheric pressure) to provide additional pressure to thewater that refills the vessels 820, 821, 822. Refilling a vessel 820,821, 822 with water reduces the volume of the air pocket 803, 813, 823in the vessel and pushes out steam and vapor from the air pocket 803,813, 823 to a condenser 825, where it is cooled to become pure waterliquid. In some implementations, the condensed water from the condenser825 can be stored in a tank 815 for reuse in the system 800. In someimplementations, the condensed water can be exported to outside waterusers or utilities.

Liquid from vessels 820, 821, 822 also can be output to a reverseosmosis filter unit 873 that is configured to filter out the buildup ofsalts and acids (e.g., sulfuric acid) from liquid 832, 842, 852 in thevessels 820, 821, 822. A portion of high-pressure water can be bled froma column of water 832, 842, 852 when the column is pressurized and sentforward to reverse osmosis filter unit 873 for filtering, and filteredwater from the reverse osmosis unit can be stored in a storage tank 875.

A controller 855 can monitor water levels L1, L2, and L3, as well astemperatures and pressures in each of the vessels 820, 821, 822. Thecontroller 855 can then determine an amount of pressurized water from tometer from the reactor 814 into each vessels 820, 821, 822 based onthese inputs. For example, the controller 855 can control one or morecontrol valves to control operation of the system 800.

The controller 855 can control operation of the system 800, such thateach of the different vessels 820, 821, 822 provide pressurized water tothe hydroelectric drive system 811 at different times within a timeperiod of a cycle. For example, in a three second time. Differentvessels 820, 821, 822 can provide pressurized water to the drive system811 beginning at times that are spaced 1.0 second apart from each other,so as to continuously provide pressurized water to the drive system 811,even when one or more of the plurality of vessels is being refilledand/or is under relatively low pressure. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, at a particular time in the cycle: vessel 820 can be in a state inwhich high-temperature, high-pressure water from the reactor 814 is justbeginning to enter the air pocket 803 above the water 832 in vessel 820,with the water 832 having a level L1, to pressurize the water 832 thatwill be provided to drive system 811; vessel 822 can be in the state inwhich it has just finished providing high-pressure water from the vessel822 to the drive system 811, with the water 852 in vessel 822 having alevel L2, and vessel 821 can be in a state in which it is in the processof being refilled with water 842 received from the cyclone 810, with thewater 842 having a level L3 that is between levels L1 and L2.

FIG. 9 is a schematic sectional view of a reaction chamber 900 for usein a high-pressure, high-temperature reactor, such as, for example, asupercritical water oxidation reactor. The reaction chamber 900 can beconfigured to receive air, water, fuel gas, liquid fuel, and fuelslurries and for the fuel to be combusted within the reaction chamber athigh pressure (e.g., greater than 1500 psi, 2500 psi, 3200 psi, 4000psi) and high temperature (e.g., greater than 300° C., 370° C. 400° C.,500° C.). The reactor chamber 900 can include an outer vessel 901 havingone or more strong, robust outer walls 920 capable of withstandingpressure differentials of greater than, for example, 2500 psi, 3200 psi,4000 psi, 5000 psi, and an inner vessel 906, located within the one ormore outer walls 920 of the vessel 901. The inner vessel 906 can beseparated from one or more interior surfaces of the outer vessel 901 bya gap. Combustion reactions can occur inside of the inner vessel 906,and the inner vessel 906 can include nonreactive materials, e.g.,surfaces, that are relatively unaffected by the high temperaturereactions that occur within the inner vessel 906. Nonreactive materialsof the inner vessel 906 can include, for example, glass and/or ceramicmaterial.

In some implementations, the outer vessel 901 can include a cylindricalsection (e.g., a casting, or a welded pipe assembly) 901A and can beprovided with flanges 901B, 901C or other means of closure. In someimplementations, the outer vessel 901 can be closed by a blind flangearrangement or bolt-on high-pressure cylinder heads 902, 911 closing thetop and bottom of the outer vessel 901, respectively. A wall 920 of theouter vessel 901 can be made of one or more materials and havedimensions (e.g., a thickness), such that the outer vessel 901 canwithstand a predetermined threshold pressure within the reaction chamber900 when the chamber is used for high-pressure, high-temperaturecombustion of fuel. For example, the predetermined threshold pressurecan be equal to a standard, or maximum, operating pressure of thereaction chamber 900 plus a margin of safety. Walls 920 of the outervessel 901 can include metal. In some implementations, one or more walls920 of the outer vessel 901 can include a combination of metal (e.g.,stainless steel) and glass or carbon fiber or metal fiber wrapping. Theone or more walls 920 of the outer vessel can be wrapped in a thermalinsulation layer to protect the metal and/or carbon fiber fromdigestion.

In some implementations, an inner surface 921 of a wall 920 of the outervessel 901 can include corrosion-resistant steel or a compositematerial. In some implementations, the inner surface 921 of a wall ofthe outer vessel 901 can be lined (e.g., plated) with acorrosion-resistant surface material, such as, for example, ceramic,PTFE, etc.

A hollow interior cavity of the reaction chamber 900 can be defined bywalls 920 of the outer vessel 901. Within the hollow interior cavity,the outer vessel 901 can include a liquid 922 and an air pocket 923above the liquid, with a top 924 of the outer vessel 901 being locatedabove the air pocket and a bottom 925 of the outer vessel being locatedbelow the liquid 922. In some implementations, for example, for agenerally cylindrical cavity, the cavity can have an axis 950 thatextends along a length of the cavity between the top 924 of the vessel901 and the bottom 925 of the vessel.

The liquid 922 within the hollow cavity of the outer vessel 901 can havea level L1 within the hollow cavity during operation of the reactorchamber 900. The outer vessel 901 includes gas ports 903, 904 throughthe top 924 from the air pocket 923 to an exterior of the outer vessel901. The outer vessel 901 can include gas ports 907, 910 between anexterior of the outer vessel 901 and a portion of the hollow cavity thatis below level L1 within the hollow cavity. Gas ports 907, 910 can bedefined, for example, through a wall of the cylindrical section 901A ofthe outer vessel 901. In addition, the outer vessel 901 can includeliquid ports 908, 909 between an exterior of the outer vessel 901 and aportion of the hollow cavity that is below level L1 within the hollowcavity. In an implementation, liquid ports 908, 909 can be definedthrough a wall of the cylindrical section 901A of the outer vessel andcan be located vertically between gas ports 907 and 910.

The inner vessel 906, located within the hollow cavity defined by thewalls of the outer vessel 901, can have a top or upper portion 926 and abottom or lower portion 927. As shown in FIG. 9 , the upper portion 926is closer to the top of the outer vessel 901 than to the bottom of theouter vessel 901, and the lower portion 927 is closer to the bottom ofthe outer vessel 901 then to the top of the outer vessel 901. The topportion 926 of the inner vessel 906 can have a diameter orcross-sectional area that is larger than the diameter or cross-sectionalarea of the bottom portion 927 of the inner vessel 906, and a diameteror cross-sectional area of the inner vessel 906 can taper (e.g., in afunnel shape) from a first size at the top portion 926 to a second,smaller size at the bottom portion 927. The taper can occur over all, ora portion 916, of a length of the vessel between the top of the vesseland the bottom of the vessel. In example implementations, the innervessel 906 can being arranged along an axis, e.g., along a length of theinner vessel 906 between its top portion 926 and is bottom portion 927,where that axis is generally parallel to, or co-extensive with, the axis950 of the outer vessel 901.

The inner vessel 906 can be made of, or include surfaces having a,nonreactive material (e.g., glass or ceramic material) that is alsocapable of withstanding the high temperatures that exist within thereaction chamber 900 during operation of the chamber, e.g., when fuel iscombusted at high pressures and temperatures within the chamber. Abottom portion 927 of the inner vessel 906 can be fixedly attached tothe bottom 925 of the outer vessel 901, and the inner vessel 906 canhave dimensions, and be located, such that a gap (e.g., a water jacketspace) 928 exists between an outer wall 929 of the inner vessel 906 andthe inner wall 921 of the outer vessel 901. In some implementations, theposition of the inner vessel 906 with respect to one or more inner walls921 of the outer vessel can be defined and/or stabilized by one or morewires, rods, protrusions, etc. from an outer wall of the inner vessel,but the water jacket space 928 between the inner vessel 906 and theouter vessel 901 is generally open for water to flow freely in the space928.

The reaction chamber 900 can include a port 915, which can be a sealedport, and an electric rod heater 931 can be provided through the port915 into the interior of the reaction chamber 900, where the rod heater931 can provide heat to initiate reactions within the reaction chamber900, before the reactions inside the chamber become self-sustaining. Therod heater 931 that is provided through port 915 can provide heat in thewater jacket space between the outer vessel 901 and the inner vessel906, where the heat is then distributed throughout the interior of thechamber by the water 922 that floods the outer and inner vessels 901,906.

During operation of the reactor chamber 900, air (e.g., oxygen andnitrogen) can be injected into the inner vessel 906 through gas ports907 and 910. Fuel gas, for example, natural gas biogas sour gas sweetgas, etc. can be injected into the inner vessel 906 through port 909.Slurry and/or liquid fuels can be injected into the inner vessel 906through port 908.

Water can be injected into the reaction chamber 900 through port 912,which opens into the reaction chamber 900 inside of the outer vessel 901but outside of the inner vessel 906. High pressure water can be drainedfrom the reaction chamber 900 through port 914, which drains water fromthe interior of inner vessel 906, where control valve 913 can controlthe rate of outflow of water through port 914. The high pressure waterthat is extracted from the reaction chamber through port 914 can beused, for example, to drive a hydroelectric drive system, to pressurizea gas or liquid charging system, etc. Water can be injected through port912 into the reaction chamber 900 at a rate that matches the rate atwhich water is extracted from the chamber through port 914, so as tomaintain a water level L1 inside the reaction chamber during operation.The level L1 of the water can be sensed by a sensor 905A that, in someimplementations, can be located outside of the outer vessel 901 and thatcan sense (e.g., optically, ultrasonically, etc.) the level L1 of thewater through a port 905B in a side wall of the outer vessel.

When water is injected through port 912 into the water jacket spacebetween the outer vessel 901 and the inner vessel 906, the water canflow up through the water jacket space 928 from the bottom of the outervessel toward the top of the outer vessel 901. When the water level L1is at or above a top of the inner vessel 906, the water injected throughport 912 can flow up through the water jacket space 928 around the wallsof the inner vessel 906 and then flow into the interior of the innervessel through the opening 930 of the inner vessel at the top portion926 of the inner vessel.

As fuel is combusted within the interior of the inner vessel 906,hydrogen released from reacted hydrocarbon chains in the fuel that iscombusted within the inner vessel 906 bonds with oxygen from the airthat is injected into the inner vessel 906 to create new water moleculesas a byproduct of the reactions within the inner vessel. The water andother reaction byproducts can be flushed from the inner vessel 906through the liquid port 914. Carbon released from hydrocarbon chainsthat are combusted within the inner vessel 906 can bond with oxygen fromthe air that is injected into the inner vessel 906 to produce carbondioxide. This carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gaseous reactionbyproducts can exit the reaction chamber 900 through gas port 903.Control valves in equipment external to the reaction chamber 900 cancontrol the release of gaseous reaction byproducts through port 903, soas to maintain a desired pressure within the reaction chamber 900. Gasport 904 can be connected to a rupture disc for a pressure relief valveexternal to the reaction chamber 900, such that if the pressure withinthe hollow cavity of the outer vessel 901 exceeds a threshold value, gascan be released through gas port 904, so that pressure within thereaction chamber 900 does not exceed a critical value.

FIG. 10 is a schematic side, sectional view of a port 1000 (e.g., port907, 908, 909, 910) through which gas (e.g., air or fuel gas) or liquidcan be provided from an exterior of the reaction chamber 900 into aninterior of the inner vessel 906. The port can include a nozzle 1023that protrudes outward from an outer wall 1022 of the outer vessel 901.The nozzle 1023 can include a hollow inner channel (e.g., a generallycylindrical channel) 1028 along an axis of the nozzle, where the innerchannel 1028 is open to an interior of the outer vessel 901 within aninner wall 1030 of the outer vessel. A flange 1027 can exist at an outerend of the nozzle 1023. A blind flange 1024 can attach to the flange1027 at the end of the nozzle 1023, and the blind flange can include aport 1025 that couples the channel 1028 to the exterior of the outervessel 901.

A first hollow tube 1026 located within the hollow channel 1028 can beattached to the blind flange 1024 and can provide a conduit for air,gas, liquid, or slurry fuel to be supplied from outside of the outervessel to inside the outer vessel. The first hollow tube 1026 can bemade of materials (e.g., stainless steel) similar to the materials ofone flange 1024 and/or can have thermal properties (e.g., thermalexpansion properties) similar to those of the blind flange 1024. Thefirst hollow tube 1026 can extend from the blind flange 1024 toward theinterior of the outer vessel, and the first tube 1026 can be open at anend 1032 to allow air, gas, or fuel that passes through the tube to beemitted from the tube into the interior of the outer vessel. Forexample, in one implementation, the first hollow tube 1026 can extendapproximately as far as the inner wall 1030 of the outer vessel.

A second hollow tube 1020 can fit over the first hollow tube 1026 andprovide an additional conduit through which air, gas, fuel, etc. canpropagate from outside of a reaction chamber to inside the chamber,after the air, gas, fuel has exited the first hollow tube 1026. Thesecond hollow tube 1020 can be fabricated of nonreactive materials thatare tolerant to very high temperatures that may exist within thereaction chamber 900. The materials of the second hollow tube 1020 caninclude, for example, glass or ceramic materials. The second hollow tube1020 can fit over the first hollow tube 1026 with sufficient clearancebetween the two tubes 1020, 1026 to allow for thermal expansion of oneor both of the tubes during operation of the reaction chamber. In someimplementations, a first end 1033 of the second hollow tube 1020 can befixedly attached to the blind flange 1024, so as to prevent or impedethe escape of gas and/or liquid introduced through first hollow tube1026 at a joint between the end first 1033 of the second hollow tube1020 and the blind flange 1024. In some implementations, the first end1033 of the second hollow tube 1020 can be coupled to the blind flange1024, for example, by the force of gravity acting on the tube 1020, suchthat the tube 1020 rests on an inner surface of the blind flange 1024.In some implementations, one or more spacers (e.g., washers, beads,protrusions, etc.) between the two hollow tubes 1020 and 1026 canmaintain a predetermined separation and a rotational orientation andalignment between the tubes.

The second hollow tube 1020 can extend further away from the blindflange 1024 than the first hollow tube 1026, and the second hollow tubecan extend into an interior of the inner vessel 906. For example, thesecond hollow tube 1020 can extend through an opening 1021 in a wall1036 of the inner vessel such that a second end 1034 of the secondhollow tube 1020 is located within an interior of the inner vessel isdefined by one or more walls 1036 of the inner vessel. A size of theopening 1021 relative to a diameter of the second hollow tube 1020 canbe selected to allow tube 1020 to fit through the opening 1021 at theexpected range of temperatures at which the reaction vessel 900 isoperated.

The second end 1034 of the second hollow tube 1020 can include one ormore openings 1035 through which air, gas, or fuel that is introducedfrom the exterior of the reaction chamber through port 1025 and tube1026 can be emitted from the second hollow tube into the inside of aninner vessel 906, i.e., on a side of wall 1036 distal to end flange1024. In some implementations, the second hollow tube 1020 can be angledupward, relative to a direction of gravity, from its first end 1033 toits second end 1034, so that air and gas emitted from end 1032 of firsthollow tube 1026 into the second hollow tube 1020 tends to bubble upwardtoward the second end 1034 and then out through openings 1035 when thetube 1020 is bathed in liquid, for example, during normal operatingconditions of the reaction chamber 900. With the second hollow tube 1020extending further away from the blind flange 1024 than the first hollowtube 1026, the end 1035 of the second hollow tube 1020 from which airand/or fuel is emitted into the vessel can be located closer tocombustion sites within the chamber and at higher temperature portionsof the reaction chamber than the opening 1032 of the first hollow tube1026. However, the nonreactive, high-temperature materials of the secondhollow tube can be more resilient to high-temperature combustionreactions than the materials of the first hollow tube and therefore canprotect the first hollow tube from damage.

The one or more openings 1035 can be arranged and oriented such that theair, gas, or fuel that is emitted through the openings exits the secondhollow tube with a direction and velocity having a component in anazimuthal direction within the inner vessel (i.e., in a directionneither parallel to a direction along an axis of the vessel, norparallel to a radial direction extending radially away from an axis ofthe vessel).

FIG. 11 is a schematic top view 1100 of the second hollow tube 1020 whenit protrudes through outer wall 1022 and inner wall 1030 of an outervessel and through an inner vessel 1036 so that the second end 1034 ofthe second hollow tube is located within the inner vessel 1036. Thesecond hollow tube 1020 can fit over the first hollow tube within achannel of the nozzle 1023. As shown in FIG. 11 , openings 1035 can belocated along a side wall proximate to the second end 1034 of the secondhollow tube 1020, so that air, gas, or fuel is emitted in a directionhaving an azimuthal component within the inner vessel. Because of thedirection in which air, gas, or fuel exits the one or more openings 1035of the second hollow tube 1020, angular momentum can be imparted by theair, gas, or fuel to the liquid within the inner vessel to create acyclonic rotation in the liquid within the inner vessel.

Referring again to FIG. 9 , such a cyclonic rotation in the liquid 922can cause the liquid to rotate about the axis 950, such that therotating liquid acts like a centrifuge to concentrate relativelylighter, less dense materials (e.g., oxygen and hydrocarbons) proximateto the axis 950 and to concentrate heavier, denser materials (e.g.,salts, minerals, oxides, and solids) away from the axis, nearer to wallsof the inner vessel 906. Because of this, exothermic combustionreactions involving hydrocarbons are concentrated closer to the axis950, while heavier reaction byproducts, such as salts, minerals, oxides,and solids migrate away from the central axis 950 toward walls of theinner vessel, while also falling due to gravity toward the lower portion927 of the inner vessel 906, where they then can be flushed from thevessel through port 914 after falling through the tapered portion of theinner vessel.

Because of the density gradient due to the cyclonic rotation induced inliquid 922 and exothermic reactions occurring preferentially nearer tothe axis 950, a radial temperature gradient can also exist withinreaction chamber 900. The radial temperature gradient also can becreated by the water introduced at low temperature (e.g., less than 100°C.) though port 912, which then flows through the water jacket space 928between the inner vessel 906 and the outer vessel 901. The incomingwater can enter the inside of the inner vessel 906 primarily throughopening 930, with some water entering the inside of the vessel from thejacket space 928 though openings 1021 (e.g., as shown in FIG. 10 ) in awall of the vessel 906 through which second hollow tubes 1020 pass. Theradial temperature gradient caused by the cyclonic rotation within theliquid 922 and the incoming water flowing in the water jacket space 928can result in a temperature at inner walls 921 of the outer vessel 901that is sufficiently low to mitigate against corrosion of the inner wallby high-temperature reactions occurring within the chamber 900 and alsocan permit walls of the outer vessel 901 to be relatively thin comparedto conventional high-temperature, high-pressure reaction vessels.

FIG. 12 is a schematic sectional view of another reaction chamber 1200for use in a high-pressure, high-temperature reactor, such as, forexample, a supercritical water oxidation reactor. The reaction chamber1200 can be configured to receive air, water, fuel gas, liquid fuel andfuel slurries and for the fuel to the combusted within the reactionchamber at high pressure (e.g., greater than 1500 psi, 2500 psi, 3200psi, 4000 psi) and high temperature (e.g., greater than 300° C., 370°C., 400° C.). The reactor chamber 1200 can include an outer vessel 1201having one or more strong, robust outer walls capable of withstandingpressure differentials of greater than, for example, 1500 psi, 2500 psi,3200 psi, 4000 psi, 5000 psi, and two or more nested inner vessels 1210,1220, located within the outer vessel 1201. An intermediate inner vessel1210 can be separated from one or more interior surfaces of the outervessel 1201 by a first gap or water jacket space, and a central innervessel 1220 can located within the intermediate inner vessel 1210 andcan be separated from one or more interior surfaces of the intermediateinner vessel 1210 by a second gap or water jacket space. Combustionreactions can occur inside of the central inner vessel 1220, and theinner vessels 1210, 1220 can include nonreactive materials, e.g.,surfaces, that are relatively unaffected by the high temperatures causedby reactions that occur within the central inner vessel 1220.Nonreactive materials of the inner vessels 1210, 1220 can include, forexample, glass and ceramic material.

In some implementations, the outer vessel 1201 can include a cylindricalsection (e.g., a casting, or a welded pipe assembly) and can be closedby blind flanges or bolt-on, high-pressure cylinder heads 1202, 1205closing the top and bottom of the vessel 1201, respectively. Walls ofthe outer vessel 1201 can be made of one or more materials anddimensions (e.g., a thickness), such that the outer vessel 1201 canwithstand a predetermined threshold pressure within the reaction chamber1200 when the chamber is used for high-pressure, high-temperaturecombustion of fuel. For example, the predetermined threshold pressurecan be equal to a standard, or maximum, operating pressure of thereaction chamber plus a margin of safety. A hollow interior cavity canbe defined by walls 1220 of the outer vessel 1201. In someimplementations, one or more walls 1220 of the outer vessel 1201 caninclude a combination of metal (e.g., stainless steel) and carbon fiberor fiberglass or metal fiber wrapping. The one or more walls of theouter vessel 1201 can be wrapped in a thermal insulation layer toprotect the metal and/or carbon fiber from the digestion. In someimplementations, for example, for a generally cylindrical cavity, thecavity can have an axis 1250 that extends along a length of the cavitybetween a top of the vessel 1201 and a bottom of the vessel.

The reactor chamber 1200 can include an intermediate inner vessel 1210located within the hollow cavity defined by the walls of the outervessel 1201. The intermediate inner vessel 1210 can include side walls1214A and a lid 1214B attached to side walls. In some implementations,the side walls 1214A and the lid 1214B can be formed as a single part(e.g., as a glass or ceramic jar). Side walls 1214A can include portions1216 that extend to a first height above a height of the lid 1214B. Sidewalls 1214A and lid 1214B can be impermeable to liquid. A bottom portionof the side walls 1214A, adjacent to the bottom blind flange 1205, caninclude one or more openings 1212 in the side walls through which liquidcan flow. The lid 1214B can include, or can be attached to, a vent port1215 through which gas can flow.

The reactor chamber 1200 can include a central inner vessel 1220 locatedwithin the hollow cavity defined by the walls of the outer vessel 1201and nested within the intermediate inner vessel 1210, for example,within the lid 1214B and the walls 1214A of the intermediate innervessel. Atop portion 1222 of the central inner vessel 1220 can have adiameter or cross-sectional area that is larger than the diameter orcross-sectional area of the bottom portion 1224 of the central innervessel 1220. A diameter or cross-sectional area of the central innervessel 1220 can taper from a first size at the top portion 1222 to asecond, smaller size at the bottom portion 1224. The central innervessel 1220 can have an axis along its length between its top and bottomportions, where the axis is generally parallel to, or co-extensive with,the axis 1250 of the outer vessel 1201. The central inner vessel 1220can include a central post 1226 that can be located, for example, alongan axis of the central inner vessel 1220. The central post 1226 can beintegrally connected to the walls of the central inner vessel 1220. Thecentral inner vessel 1220 can be attached to the outer vessel 1201 tohold the central inner vessel 1220 in place relative to the outervessel. For example, the central post 1226 can be connected to a bottomflange 1205 of the outer vessel.

The inner vessels 1210, 1220 can be made of, or include surfaces havinga, nonreactive material (e.g., glass or ceramic material) that is alsocapable of withstanding the high temperatures that exist within thereaction chamber 1200 during operation of the chamber when fuel iscombusted at high pressures and temperatures within the chamber.

Liquid 1211 can be contained with the hollow interior cavity, and theliquid can envelope outer walls of the nested inner vessels 1210, 1220.For example, liquid 1211 can have a level L1 outside of the innervessels 1210, 1220 and level L2 inside of the inner vessels 1210, 1220,where L2 is lower than L1. A first air pocket 1223 can exist inside theintermediate inner vessel 1210 above the liquid level L2 in the vessel1210, and a second air pocket 1239 can exist outside the intermediateinner vessel 1210 above the liquid level L1 in the vessel 1201.

The reaction chamber 1200 can include a liquid input port 1203 throughwhich liquid (e.g., water) can be injected into the hollow cavity formedby the outer vessel 1201. The reaction chamber 1200 can include a firstliquid output port 1234 through which liquid and reaction byproducts canbe flushed from the reaction chamber. For example, the first liquidoutput port can have a first opening 1236 within the central innervessel 1220 and a conduit from the first opening 1236 to a secondopening 1238 outside of the outer vessel 1201, so that liquid andreaction byproducts from within the central inner vessel 1220 can beflushed from within the vessel 1220 to outside outer vessel 1201. Thepump 1240 can pump contents within the first liquid output port 1234 forfurther processing within a system that includes the reaction chamber1200. For example, contents within the first liquid output port 1234 canbe pumped to a dedicated drive column for processing of thereaction-byproduct-rich material that is flushed out of the inner vessel1220 through the port 1234.

The reaction chamber 1200 can include a second liquid output port 1232through which liquid and reaction byproducts can be extracted from thereaction chamber. For example, the second liquid output port 1232 canextend from the top flange 1202 through the lid 1214B of theintermediate inner vessel and into liquid 1211 contained within thecentral inner vessel 1220. Thus, liquid 1211 can enter a first opening1251 of the second liquid output port 1232. The first opening 1251, insome implementations, can be located on a central axis 1250 of thecentral inner vessel 1220. When a cyclonic rotation is created in theliquid 1211, liquid received through the first opening 1251 can berelatively free of dense reaction byproducts (e.g., salts and minerals)and thus mineral-poor, as compared with mineral-rich liquid receivedthrough opening 1236 of first liquid output port 1234, where the opening1236 is located at a bottom portion 1224 of the central inner vessel1220 and is located away from the central axis 1250. The second liquidoutput port 1232 can pass through top flange 1202, such that liquidreceived through opening 1251 can be extracted out of the reactionchamber 1200 for use in other portions of a system that includes thereaction chamber 1200. For example, high-pressure liquid receivedthrough second liquid output 1232 port can be direction to ahydroelectric drive system to generate electrical power.

The reaction chamber 1200 can include an input port 1228 for providingair, fuel gas, and liquid or slurry fuel to within the central innervessel 1220. The input port 1228 can pass through in someimplementations, the input port bottom flange 1205, and up through post1226, to outlets or nozzles 1230 that emit the air, fuel gas, and liquidor slurry fuel to within the central inner vessel 1220. Outlets ornozzles 1230 can be configured to emit the air, fuel gas and/or liquidor slurry fuel into the central inner vessel 1220 with directions andvelocities that impart angular momentum to the liquid 1211 about thecentral axis 1250 to create a cyclonic rotation in the liquid 1211. Forexample, outlets or nozzles can be located a distance away from the axisof the inner vessel and can configured to emit air, fuel gas, and/orliquid or slurry fuel into the vessel 1220 in a direction having anazimuthal component. In an implementation, different outlets or nozzles1230 can be used to supply different ones of the air, fuel gas, and/orliquid or slurry fuel to the central inner vessel 1220. In animplementation, outlets or nozzles 1230 can include openings ofdifferent concentric tubes located on the axis of the vessel 1220, withthe different tubes supplying different ones of the of the air, fuelgas, and/or liquid or slurry fuel to the central inner vessel 1220.Thus, at least some of the concentric tubes can be arranged as ringsaround other tubes, with the rings supplying air, fuel gas, and/orliquid or slurry fuel to the vessel a distance away from the axis of thevessel 1220. The air, fuel gas, and/or liquid or slurry fuel supplied tothe vessel a distance away from the axis can be supplied in a directionhaving an azimuthal component to cause the cyclonic rotation within thevessel. For example, a concentric tube arranged as a ring can includeone or more angled slats at an opening of the tube into the vessel tocause the air, fuel gas, and/or liquid or slurry fuel to be emitted fromthe ring into the vessel in a direction that is non-parallel to the axisof the vessel.

During operation of the reaction chamber 1200, liquid levels L1 and L2can be maintained within the hollow cavity within the vessels 1201,1210, 1220 by controlling flow rates of liquid into and out of thereaction chamber and by controlling pressures of air pockets 1223 and1239. Liquid (e.g., water) can enter into the hollow cavity throughliquid input port 1203 and exit out of the hollow cavity through liquidoutlet ports 1232 and 1234. Liquid inlet port 1203 can be located at aradial position a distance away from the axis 1250, but can be locatedcloser to the axis than the portions 1216 of the sidewalls 1214A of theintermediate inner vessel that extend above the lid 1214B of theintermediate inner vessel. Thus, the liquid entering through port 1203can cover the lid 1214B and then overflow the portions 1216 and descendthrough a first water jacket space 1253 between the outer vessel 1201and the intermediate inner vessel 1210. Liquid can flow through openings1212 at a bottom of the intermediate inner vessel 1210 and then upthrough a second water jacket space 1255 between the intermediate innervessel 1210 and the central inner vessel 1220. From the second waterjacket space 1255, liquid can overflow a top portion 1222 of the centralinner vessel 1220 to enter the inside of the central inner vessel 1220.From the inside of the central inner vessel 1220, liquid can flow out ofthe reaction chamber 1200 through ports 1232 and 1234.

Liquid (e.g., water) can have an initial temperature when it enters thereaction chamber 1200 through the liquid input port 1203, and as theliquid proceeds through the first inner jacket 1253 and the second innerjacket 1255, the liquid can be heated from its initial temperature to aninterior operating temperature of interior of the central inner vessel1220. In this manner, first and second water jackets 1253, 1255 providefor a radial temperature gradient within the reaction chamber 1200,which keeps the walls of the outer vessel 1201 at manageabletemperatures significantly lower than an internal operating temperaturewithin the central inner vessel 1220.

Exothermic reactions within the central inner vessel 1220 pressurize theair pocket 1223, and pressurized gas (e.g., steam) can be released fromthe air pocket 1223 through gas outlet port 1204. The pressurized gasreleased through gas outlet port 1204 can be routed to other componentsof a system that includes the reactor chamber 1200, for example, to acharging system that is used to compress air, fuel gas, and/or liquidfuel for injection into the reaction chamber 1200.

Air, fuel gas, and/or liquid fuel can be introduced into the centralinner vessel 1220 through port 1228, which emits air, fuel gas and/orliquid fuel into the central inner vessel 1220 through outlets ornozzles 1230. The outlets of the nozzles 1230 can be located around anaxis 1250 of the central inner vessel and can be configured to injectthe air, fuel gas, and/or liquid fuel into the central inner vessel 1220with a velocity having a direction within an azimuthal component, so asto impart angular momentum to the liquid 1211 in the central innervessel, to create a cyclonic rotation in the liquid 1211. The cyclonicrotation in the liquid 1211 can concentrate fuel for combustionreactions close to the axis 1250, while denser materials (e.g., saltsand mineral byproducts of the combustion reactions) can migrate radiallyoutward away from the axis 1250 and then drop under the force of gravityto a bottom portion 1224 of the central inner vessel where they can beflushed out of the central inner vessel through port 1234.

The controller 1265 can monitor the temperature, pressure, and volume ofliquids, air, gases, and fuel input into the reaction chamber 1200 andcoming out of the reaction chamber. For example, an oxygen sensorlocated in a conduit or chamber connected to gas output port 1204 canmonitor an oxygen amount in the gas output from the reaction chamber,and, if the oxygen amount exceeds a threshold value, the supply of airto the central inner vessel 1220 (e.g., through input port 1228) can bereduced. In addition, an amount of carbon monoxide in the gas outputfrom the reaction chamber can be monitored, and, if the carbon monoxideamount exceeds a threshold value, the supply of air to the central innervessel 1220 can be increased to ensure efficient combustion and energycapture from hydrocarbons and other fuel injected into the reactionchamber 1200.

The techniques described herein have significant advantages. Forexample, a reaction chamber 1200 is described in which one or morechemically inert (e.g., glass or ceramic) inner vessels one or morewater jacket spaces around the inner vessel(s) are used to containhigh-temperature, high-pressure reactions (e.g., supercritical wateroxidation reactions), while also utilizing radial thermal gradients andthe concentration of fuel along a central axis of the inner vessel(s) toprotect the metal outer vessel from chemical and/or oxidation attack dueto the high temperature, high-pressure reactions. In addition, thecyclonic rotation created within the inner vessel where thehigh-temperature, high-pressure combustion reactions occur is used toconcentrate hydrocarbon fuels along a central axis of the inner vessel,while permitting reaction byproducts to migrate outward to the walls ofthe inner vessel.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating a method 1300 for producingelectrical energy from high-temperature, high-pressure liquid. Inexample implementations, the method 1300 can be implemented usingapparatus described herein, such as illustrated in FIGS. 1-12 anddescribed above.

The method 1300, at block 1310, includes receiving high-temperature,high-pressure liquid from a reactor where the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid is a byproduct of combustion of fuel in thereactor. At block 1310, the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid isreceived into a vessel having one or more walls that define a hollowinterior cavity partially filled with water, with an air pocket withinthe cavity. When the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid is received,in the method 1300, the water in the cavity has a first level and theair pocket has a first pressure that is less than an operating pressureof the reactor.

At block 1320, the method 1300 includes, after the receivedhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid has vaporized in the air pocketand increased the pressure of the air pocket to a second pressuregreater than the first pressure, releasing pressurized water from thecavity. At block 1330, the method 1300 includes driving a hydroelectricsystem with the released pressurized water and, at block 1340, refillingthe vessel with water recovered from water used to drive thehydroelectric drive system.

Example implementations of the method 1300 can include one or more ofthe following features. For example, the method 1300 can includeseparating solids and/or mineral crystals from the water that was usedto drive the hydroelectric drive system before refilling the vessel withthe water recovered from water used to drive the hydroelectric drivesystem. The method can include releasing steam from the vessel inresponse to the refilling of the vessel with water recovered from waterused to drive the hydroelectric drive system. The method can includecondensing the released steam into water, and capturing the condensedwater in a container.

The hydroelectric drive system can include a Pelton wheel. Thehigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid received from the reactor intothe air pocket can include supercritical water.

The method can include releasing water from the cavity of the vessel,and filtering the released water through a reverse osmosis filter toremove salt and an acid from water. The acid can include sulfuric acid.

The second pressure can be greater than 85% of an operating pressure ofthe reactor. Refilling the vessel can begin when the cavity has apressure that is less than 40 psi.

The vessel can be one of a plurality of vessels. Each of the pluralityof vessels can have one or more walls that define a hollow interiorcavity configured to be partially filled with water, with an air pocketwithin the cavity above the water in the cavity. Each vessel can includea high-pressure water outlet port and a high-pressure water inlet port.The method can include admitting water received from the hydroelectricdrive system into each vessel to refill the vessel. Water received fromthe hydroelectric drive system into a first vessel of the plurality ofvessels can include water received into the hydroelectric drive systemfrom a second vessel of the plurality of vessels. The second vessel canbe different from the first vessel. The method can include controlling arelease of gas from the air pocket of each vessel to a vapor condenserwhile water is refilling the vessel.

The techniques described herein have significant advantages. Theyfacilitate charging a supercritical water oxidation reactor with fueland oxygen using waste heat and energy from the supercritical wateroxidation reaction, and the enable pressurization of gases to very highpressures without any moving mechanical pistons inside of cylinders,thus greatly reducing wear and maintenance normally associated withthese types of fuels. Furthermore, they allow allows dirty bio andhydrocarbon fuels as well as dirty water to be used in super criticalwater oxidation processes, thus dramatically improving the range ofselectable fuels and water sources, many of them as low-cost renewablesources or from waste such as sewage or contaminated sea water. Furtherthe ability to charge the reactor with these fuels and liquids usingwaste pressure and heat left over from the reaction makes the entireprocess more efficient and economically viable. This in turn openspossibilities to less expensive and more environmentally friendly energyproduction and water reclamation.

A number of embodiments have been described. Nevertheless, it will beunderstood that various modifications may be made without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the invention.

In addition, the logic flows depicted in the figures do not require theparticular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirableresults. In addition, other steps may be provided, or steps may beeliminated, from the described flows, and other components may be addedto, or removed from, the described systems. Accordingly, otherembodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for producing electrical energy fromhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid, the system comprising: a reactorconfigured for combusting fuel and producing high-temperature,high-pressure liquid as a byproduct of the combustion of the fuel; atleast one vessel having one or more walls that define a hollow interiorcavity configured to be partially filled with water, with an air pocketwithin the hollow interior cavity above the water in the hollow interiorcavity, wherein the at least one vessel includes a high-pressure wateroutlet port and a high-pressure water inlet port; a plurality of valvesconfigured to control admission of high-temperature, high-pressureliquid from the reactor directly into the air pocket through thehigh-pressure water inlet port such that the high-pressure liquidflashes to steam upon admission to the air pocket when the air pockethas a pressure lower than an operating pressure of the reactor and tocontrol emission of the water from the at least one vessel through thehigh-pressure water outlet port after the water in the at least onevessel has been pressurized by the admission of the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid from the reactor into the air pocket; and ahydroelectric drive system configured for receiving water emitted fromthe hollow interior cavity of the at least one vessel through thehigh-pressure water outlet port and for converting energy in thereceived water into electrical energy.
 2. The system of claim 1, whereinthe at least one vessel further includes a water inlet port configuredfor receiving low-pressure water from the hydroelectric drive system,wherein the low-pressure water received from the hydroelectric drivesystem includes water that was emitted from the hollow interior cavityof the at least one vessel, received by the hydroelectric drive system,and used by the hydroelectric drive system to convert energy in thewater into electrical energy.
 3. The system of claim 2, wherein the atleast one vessel includes a gas outlet port configured for emittingsteam from the at least one vessel in response to receipt of water fromthe hydroelectric drive system through the water inlet port.
 4. Thesystem of claim 3, further comprising a vapor condenser configured forreceiving the emitted steam and for condensing the steam into water. 5.The system of claim 1, wherein the hydroelectric drive system includes aPelton wheel.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid received from the reactor into the air pocketthrough the high-pressure water inlet port includes supercritical water.7. The system of claim 1, further comprising a reverse osmosis filter,wherein the at least one vessel includes a water outlet port configuredfor emitting low-pressure water from the at least one vessel to thereverse osmosis filter.
 8. The system of claim 1, further comprising: acontroller configured to control the admission of the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid received from the reactor into the air pocket, suchthat the received liquid vaporizes in the air pocket and increases thepressure of the air pocket and the water in the at least one vessel uponadmission of the high-temperature, high-pressure into the air pocket. 9.The system of claim 8, wherein the controller is further configured tocontrol the admission of the high-temperature, high-pressure liquidreceived from the reactor into the air pocket and emission of the waterfrom the at least one vessel to the hydroelectric drive system, suchthat when a water level reaches a minimum water level in the at leastone vessel after the emission of the water to the hydroelectric drivesystem a pressure in the at least one vessel is below 40 psi.
 10. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein the at least one vessel includes a pluralityof vessels, each of the plurality of vessels having one or more wallsthat define a hollow interior cavity configured to be partially filledwith water, with an air pocket within the hollow interior cavity abovethe water in the hollow interior cavity, wherein each vessel includes ahigh-pressure water outlet port and a high-pressure water inlet port;and wherein the plurality of valves includes valves configured tocontrol admission of high-temperature, high-pressure liquid from thereactor into the air pocket of each vessel through the high-pressurewater inlet port of the vessel when the air pocket has a pressure lowerthan an operating pressure of the reactor and to control emission of thewater from each vessel through the high-pressure water outlet port ofthe vessel after the water in the vessel has been pressurized by theadmission of the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid from the reactorinto the air pocket, wherein the hydroelectric drive system is furtherconfigured for receiving water emitted from the hollow interior cavityof each vessel through the high-pressure water outlet port of the vesseland for converting energy in the received water into electrical energy.11. The system of claim 10, wherein the plurality of valves includesvalves configured to control admission water received from thehydroelectric drive system into each vessel to refill the vessel andvalves configured to control a release of gas from the air pocket ofeach vessel to a vapor condenser while water is refilling the vessel.12. The system of claim 11, wherein the valves configured to controladmission water received from the hydroelectric drive system into eachvessel to refill the vessel include check valves, and wherein the valvesconfigured to control emission of the water from each vessel through thehigh-pressure water outlet port of the vessel include check valves. 13.The system of claim 12, wherein water received from the hydroelectricdrive system into a first vessel of the plurality of vessels includeswater received into the hydroelectric drive system from a second vesselof the plurality of vessels, the second vessel being different from thefirst vessel.
 14. A method for producing electrical energy fromhigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid, the method comprising: receivinghigh-temperature, high-pressure liquid from a reactor directly into anair pocket of a vessel having one or more walls that define a hollowinterior cavity partially filled with water, the air pocket being abovethe water in the hollow interior cavity, wherein the high-temperature,high-pressure liquid is a byproduct of combustion of fuel in thereactor, wherein when the high-temperature, high-pressure liquid isreceived, the water in the hollow interior cavity has a first level andthe air pocket has a first pressure that is less than an operatingpressure of the reactor and the received high-temperature, high-pressureliquid flashes to steam upon admission to the air pocket; after thereceived high-temperature, high-pressure liquid has vaporized in the airpocket and increased the pressure of the air pocket to a second pressuregreater than the first pressure, releasing pressurized water from thehollow interior cavity; driving a hydroelectric drive system with thereleased pressurized water; and refilling the vessel with waterrecovered from water used to drive the hydroelectric drive system. 15.The method of claim 14, further comprising: separating solids and/ormineral crystals from the water that was used to drive the hydroelectricdrive system before refilling the vessel with the water recovered fromwater used to drive the hydroelectric drive system.
 16. The method ofclaim 14, further comprising: releasing steam from the vessel inresponse to the refilling of the vessel with water recovered from waterused to drive the hydroelectric drive system.
 17. The method of claim16, further comprising: condensing the released steam into water; andcapturing the condensed water in a container.
 18. The method of claim14, wherein the hydroelectric drive system includes a Pelton wheel. 19.The method of claim 14, wherein the high-temperature, high-pressureliquid received from the reactor into the air pocket includessupercritical water.
 20. The method of claim 14, further comprising:releasing water from the hollow interior cavity of the vessel; andfiltering the released water through a reverse osmosis filter to removesalt and an acid from water.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein theacid includes sulfuric acid.
 22. The method of claim 14, wherein thesecond pressure is greater than 85% of an operating pressure of thereactor.
 23. The method of claim 14, wherein refilling the vessel beginswhen the hollow interior cavity has a pressure that is less than 40 psi.24. The method of claim 14, wherein the vessel is one of a plurality ofvessels, each of the plurality of vessels having one or more walls thatdefine a hollow interior cavity configured to be partially filled withwater, with an air pocket within the hollow interior cavity above thewater in the hollow interior cavity, wherein each vessel includes ahigh-pressure water outlet port and a water inlet port, the methodfurther comprising: admitting water received from the hydroelectricdrive system into each vessel to refill the vessel, wherein waterreceived from the hydroelectric drive system into a first vessel of theplurality of vessels includes water received into the hydroelectricdrive system from a second vessel of the plurality of vessels, thesecond vessel being different from the first vessel; and controlling arelease of gas from the air pocket of each vessel to a vapor condenserwhile water is refilling the vessel.